Deep Search for Joint Sources of Gravitational Waves and High-Energy Neutrinos with IceCube During the Third Observing Run of LIGO and Virgo
This paper presents a search for joint sources of gravitational waves and high-energy neutrinos using data from the LIGO, Virgo, and IceCube observatories during the third observing run, which found no significant detections but established constraints on the rate densities and isotropic neutrino emission from such sources.
Original authors: The IceCube Collaboration, R. Abbasi, M. Ackermann, J. Adams, S. K. Agarwalla, J. A. Aguilar, M. Ahlers, J. M. Alameddine, S. Ali, N. M. Amin, K. Andeen, C. Argüelles, Y. Ashida, S. Athanasiadou, S. N. Axani, R. Babu, X. Bai, J. Baines-Holmes, A. Balagopal V., S. W. Barwick, S. Bash, V. Basu, R. Bay, J. J. Beatty, J. Becker Tjus, P. Behrens, J. Beise, C. Bellenghi, S. Benkel, S. BenZvi, D. Berley, E. Bernardini, D. Z. Besson, E. Blaufuss, L. Bloom, S. Blot, I. Bodo, F. Bontempo, J. Y. Book Motzkin, C. Boscolo Meneguolo, S. Böser, O. Botner, J. Böttcher, J. Braun, B. Brinson, Z. Brisson-Tsavoussis, R. T. Burley, D. Butterfield, M. A. Campana, K. Carloni, J. Carpio, S. Chattopadhyay, N. Chau, Z. Chen, D. Chirkin, S. Choi, B. A. Clark, A. Coleman, P. Coleman, G. H. Collin, D. A. Coloma Borja, A. Connolly, J. M. Conrad, S. T. Countryman, D. F. Cowen, C. De Clercq, J. J. DeLaunay, D. Delgado, T. Delmeulle, S. Deng, P. Desiati, K. D. de Vries, G. de Wasseige, T. DeYoung, J. C. Díaz-Vélez, S. DiKerby, T. Ding, M. Dittmer, A. Domi, L. Draper, L. Dueser, D. Durnford, K. Dutta, M. A. DuVernois, T. Ehrhardt, L. Eidenschink, A. Eimer, C. Eldridge, P. Eller, E. Ellinger, D. Elsässer, R. Engel, H. Erpenbeck, W. Esmail, S. Eulig, J. Evans, P. A. Evenson, K. L. Fan, K. Fang, K. Farrag, A. R. Fazely, A. Fedynitch, N. Feigl, C. Finley, L. Fischer, D. Fox, A. Franckowiak, S. Fukami, P. Fürst, J. Gallagher, E. Ganster, A. Garcia, M. Garcia, G. Garg, E. Genton, L. Gerhardt, A. Ghadimi, C. Glaser, T. Glüsenkamp, J. G. Gonzalez, S. Goswami, A. Granados, D. Grant, S. J. Gray, S. Griffin, S. Griswold, K. M. Groth, D. Guevel, C. Günther, P. Gutjahr, C. Ha, C. Haack, A. Hallgren, L. Halve, F. Halzen, L. Hamacher, M. Ha Minh, M. Handt, K. Hanson, J. Hardin, A. A. Harnisch, P. Hatch, A. Haungs, J. Häußler, K. Helbing, J. Hellrung, B. Henke, L. Hennig, F. Henningsen, L. Heuermann, R. Hewett, N. Heyer, S. Hickford, A. Hidvegi, C. Hill, G. C. Hill, R. Hmaid, K. D. Hoffman, D. Hooper, S. Hori, K. Hoshina, M. Hostert, W. Hou, M. Hrywniak, T. Huber, K. Hultqvist, K. Hymon, A. Ishihara, W. Iwakiri, M. Jacquart, S. Jain, O. Janik, M. Jansson, M. Jeong, M. Jin, N. Kamp, D. Kang, W. Kang, A. Kappes, L. Kardum, T. Karg, M. Karl, A. Karle, A. Katil, M. Kauer, J. L. Kelley, M. Khanal, A. Khatee Zathul, A. Kheirandish, H. Kimku, J. Kiryluk, C. Klein, S. R. Klein, Y. Kobayashi, A. Kochocki, R. Koirala, H. Kolanoski, T. Kontrimas, L. Köpke, C. Kopper, D. J. Koskinen, P. Koundal, M. Kowalski, T. Kozynets, A. Kravka, N. Krieger, J. Krishnamoorthi, T. Krishnan, K. Kruiswijk, E. Krupczak, A. Kumar, E. Kun, N. Kurahashi, N. Lad, C. Lagunas Gualda, L. Lallement Arnaud, M. J. Larson, F. Lauber, J. P. Lazar, K. Leonard DeHolton, A. Leszczyńska, C. Li, J. Liao, C. Lin, Q. R. Liu, Y. T. Liu, M. Liubarska, C. Love, L. Lu, F. Lucarelli, W. Luszczak, Y. Lyu, M. Macdonald, J. Madsen, E. Magnus, Y. Makino, E. Manao, S. Mancina, A. Mand, I. C. Mariş, S. Marka, Z. Marka, L. Marten, I. Martinez-Soler, R. Maruyama, J. Mauro, F. Mayhew, F. McNally, K. Meagher, S. Mechbal, A. Medina, M. Meier, Y. Merckx, L. Merten, J. Mitchell, L. Molchany, S. Mondal, T. Montaruli, R. W. Moore, Y. Morii, A. Mosbrugger, M. Moulai, D. Mousadi, E. Moyaux, T. Mukherjee, R. Naab, M. Nakos, U. Naumann, J. Necker, L. Neste, M. Neumann, H. Niederhausen, M. U. Nisa, K. Noda, A. Noell, A. Novikov, A. Obertacke, V. O'Dell, A. Olivas, A. S. Oliveira, R. Orsoe, J. Osborn, E. O'Sullivan, V. Palusova, H. Pandya, A. Parenti, N. Park, V. Parrish, E. N. Paudel, L. Paul, C. Pérez de los Heros, T. Pernice, T. C. Petersen, J. Peterson, M. Plum, A. Pontén, V. Poojyam, Y. Popovych, M. Prado Rodriguez, B. Pries, R. Procter-Murphy, G. T. Przybylski, L. Pyras, C. Raab, J. Rack-Helleis, N. Rad, M. Ravn, K. Rawlins, Z. Rechav, A. Rehman, I. Reistroffer, E. Resconi, S. Reusch, C. D. Rho, W. Rhode, L. Ricca, B. Riedel, A. Rifaie, E. J. Roberts, M. Rongen, A. Rosted, C. Rott, T. Ruhe, L. Ruohan, D. 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Original paper licensed under CC BY 4.0 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). ✨ This is an AI-generated explanation of the paper below. It is not written or endorsed by the authors. For technical accuracy, refer to the original paper. Read full disclaimer
Imagine the universe as a massive, chaotic concert hall. For a long time, we could only hear the music (light from stars and galaxies). Then, we learned to feel the vibrations of the floor (gravitational waves from crashing black holes). More recently, we started catching the "ghost particles" that fly through the walls (high-energy neutrinos).
This paper is a report from a team of scientists who tried to catch these three things happening at the exact same time, from the same source, during a specific period of observation (the "Third Observing Run" or O3).
Here is the breakdown of their search, using simple analogies:
1. The Goal: Finding the "Perfect Trio"
The scientists wanted to find a cosmic event that sent out a gravitational wave (a ripple in space), a high-energy neutrino (a ghostly particle), and potentially a burst of light, all at once.
Think of it like trying to find a specific firework display that makes a loud boom (gravity), shoots a bright spark (light), and releases a specific scent (neutrino). If you catch all three from the same spot, you know exactly what kind of firework it was and how it worked.
2. The Tools: Two Giant Nets
To catch these events, the team used two massive "nets":
- The Gravity Net (LIGO and Virgo): These are giant, laser-based detectors in the US and Italy that listen for the "booms" of space. They are very sensitive but often hear "static" or "false alarms" (like a car backfiring sounding like a firework).
- The Neutrino Net (IceCube): This is a massive detector buried deep under the ice in Antarctica. It looks for the "ghost particles" (neutrinos) that pass through the Earth. It's like a net that catches invisible fish swimming through a frozen lake.
3. The Search Strategy: Looking for "Sub-Threshold" Clues
Usually, scientists only look for the loudest, clearest signals. But this team decided to look at everything, even the faint, shaky signals that usually get ignored.
- The Analogy: Imagine you are looking for a specific person in a crowded stadium. Usually, you only look at people waving giant flags (loud signals). But this team decided to look at everyone, even the people just tapping their feet or whispering (sub-threshold signals). They reasoned that if a faint tap and a faint whisper happened at the exact same second from the same seat, it might be the person they were looking for, even if neither signal was strong enough to be noticed alone.
They used a smart computer program called LLAMA (Low-Latency Algorithm for Multimessenger Astrophysics). Think of LLAMA as a super-smart detective who takes a list of "suspicious taps" from the neutrino net and a list of "suspicious booms" from the gravity net and checks if any of them happened at the same time and in the same direction.
4. The Results: The Silence
After checking thousands of candidates from the "Third Observing Run" (which ran from 2019 to 2020), the result was: Nothing.
- They found no "perfect trios."
- They found no cases where a faint gravity signal and a faint neutrino signal lined up perfectly to prove they came from the same source.
- The best match they found was still just a coincidence, like two people in a crowd tapping their feet at the same time by accident.
5. What They Learned: Setting the Rules
Even though they didn't find a new cosmic event, they learned something important by not finding one.
- The Analogy: Imagine you are trying to figure out how loud a firework must be to be smelled by a dog down the street. You set up a dog and a firework, but the dog doesn't smell anything. You can't say "the firework didn't happen," but you can say, "If a firework happened, it wasn't loud enough to be smelled by this dog."
The scientists used their "empty" search to set limits. They calculated that if these cosmic events are happening, they aren't shooting out enough neutrinos to be detected by IceCube unless the explosion is incredibly energetic (releasing more energy than our sun does in its entire lifetime, all in neutrinos).
Summary
The paper is a report saying: "We listened very carefully to the universe's loudest and quietest signals using our best nets. We didn't find a single event where gravity waves and ghost particles came from the same source. This tells us that if these events are happening, they are either very rare, or they don't shoot out enough ghost particles for us to catch them yet."
The team concludes that to find these "perfect trios" in the future, we will need even bigger nets (better detectors) to catch the fainter signals.
Technical Summary: Deep Search for Joint Sources of Gravitational Waves and High-Energy Neutrinos with IceCube During the Third Observing Run of LIGO and Virgo
Problem and Motivation
The discovery of joint sources of high-energy neutrinos (HENs) and gravitational waves (GWs) remains a primary target for multimessenger astrophysics. While the detection of the binary neutron star (BNS) merger GW170817 established connections between GWs and electromagnetic emissions, the expected HEN emission from such events was not observed. Theoretical models predict that HENs are produced in relativistic jets following compact object mergers or stellar collapses, carrying information about hadronic acceleration mechanisms. However, the lack of a confirmed joint detection has left the connection between GW sources and HENs unverified. This paper addresses the need to search for common sources of GWs and HENs using the extensive datasets from the third observing run (O3) of Advanced LIGO and Advanced Virgo, combined with continuous data from the IceCube Neutrino Observatory. The search aims to constrain the rate densities of joint sources and the isotropic neutrino emission from GW sources, particularly focusing on sub-threshold events that were previously excluded from confident detection catalogs.
Methodology
The analysis utilizes data from the IceCube detector (specifically the low-latency Gamma-ray Follow-Up, or GFU, stream of muon tracks) and the LIGO-Virgo-KAGRA (LVK) collaboration's O3 data. The study encompasses 2,210 compact binary coalescence (CBC) candidates and 481 generic burst candidates from the all-sky coherent Wave Burst (cWB) search. Crucially, the dataset includes sub-threshold events with false alarm rates higher than those in standard catalogs.
The core of the analysis employs the Low-Latency Algorithm for Multimessenger Astrophysics (LLAMA) pipeline. The methodology is divided into two parts:
- Individual Event Analysis: For each GW candidate, the algorithm calculates a test statistic (TS) based on the Bayesian odds ratio between a signal hypothesis (GW and at least one HEN from the same source) and multiple background hypotheses (noise-only, GW-only, or HEN-only). The analysis incorporates priors on source parameters (luminosity distance, sky position, time, and emission energies in GWs and HENs). The signal hypothesis assumes a power-law neutrino spectrum (E−2) and emission energies comparable to short gamma-ray bursts (1046–1051 erg). The time window for coincidence is set to ±500 seconds.
- Population Analysis: To assess the presence of a signal across the entire dataset, a population test statistic (TSpop) is constructed as the sum of individual test statistics. This approach increases statistical power to detect an excess of high-significance events that might not be individually significant. The significance of the population result is evaluated against a background distribution generated by scrambling neutrino and GW triggers.
To derive constraints, the authors perform injection simulations. They simulate multimessenger signals by injecting GW events (based on O3 population properties for BNS, NSBH, and BBH) and corresponding neutrinos from the same source location. These simulations allow for the calculation of detection probabilities for both GWs and neutrinos as a function of distance and declination, enabling the derivation of upper limits on the rate density of joint emitters.
Key Contributions
- Extended Dataset: This work represents the most sensitive offline search for joint HEN and GW emission to date, utilizing a significantly larger dataset that includes sub-threshold GW candidates from the entirety of the O3 run.
- Improved Statistical Framework: The analysis refines the LLAMA pipeline to handle sub-threshold GW triggers by incorporating the probability of terrestrial origin (pterr) and utilizing signal-to-noise ratio distributions more rigorously than previous confident-only searches.
- Population Constraints: The paper provides the first constraints on the high-energy neutrino emission from the population of compact binary coalescences, specifically addressing the rate density of joint emitters for different source types (BBH, BNS, NSBH).
Results
- No Significant Detection: The search did not identify any significant joint sources. The lowest individual p-value for a CBC candidate was 3.8×10−4 (post-trials $0.84$), and for a cWB candidate, it was 4.3×10−4 (post-trials $0.21$). The cumulative distribution of p-values for both CBC and cWB candidates is consistent with a uniform distribution expected from background noise.
- Population Limits: The population analysis yielded p-values of 0.22 for CBC triggers and 0.18 for cWB triggers, indicating no evidence of a joint signal in the dataset.
- Upper Limits on Rate Density: The study derives 90% frequentist upper limits on the rate density of multimessenger events. These limits constrain the isotropic neutrino emission from GW sources only at very high total neutrino emission energies (>1052–1054 erg). For beamed emissions (with a beaming factor of ∼100) or lower total neutrino energies (typical of short GRBs), the upper limits on the joint source rate density lie above the estimated rate densities of GW sources, meaning they do not currently constrain the joint emission from these sources.
- Detection Capabilities: The results indicate that the current limits are primarily set by the detection capabilities of neutrino detectors rather than GW detectors, particularly for lower energy emissions.
Significance and Claims
The paper claims that while no joint detection was made, the analysis significantly expands the analyzed dataset and provides the first constraints on the high-energy neutrino emission from the population of compact binary coalescences. The authors state that these results constrain the isotropic neutrino emission from gravitational-wave sources only for very high values of total energy emitted in neutrinos. The absence of a detection implies that the joint detection of GWs and HENs is currently limited by neutrino detection capabilities. Consequently, the paper motivates the development of next-generation neutrino detectors (such as IceCube-Gen2 and KM3NeT) and GW detectors (Einstein Telescope, Cosmic Explorer) to enhance the chances of future joint discoveries. The work serves as a comprehensive archival search that complements previous efforts and establishes a baseline for future multimessenger studies using the ongoing O4 observing run.
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