🔭 astrophysics

Euclid: Calibrating distances from surface brightness fluctuations with Early Release Observations of the Fornax cluster

This paper presents the first application of Surface Brightness Fluctuations (SBF) to Euclid Early Release Observations, successfully calibrating distance measurements for galaxies in the Fornax cluster and validating the method's robustness and potential for probing stellar populations in other fields despite the data pipeline's lack of SBF optimization.

Original authors: R. Habas (INAF - Osservatorio Astronomico d'Abruzzo, Via Maggini, 64100, Teramo, Italy), M. Cantiello (INAF - Osservatorio Astronomico d'Abruzzo, Via Maggini, 64100, Teramo, Italy), G. Riccio (INAF - R. Habas (INAF - Osservatorio Astronomico d'Abruzzo, Via Maggini, 64100, Teramo, Italy), M. Cantiello (INAF - Osservatorio Astronomico d'Abruzzo, Via Maggini, 64100, Teramo, Italy), G. Riccio (INAF - Osservatorio Astronomico d'Abruzzo, Via Maggini, 64100, Teramo, Italy), G. Raimondo (INAF - Osservatorio Astronomico d'Abruzzo, Via Maggini, 64100, Teramo, Italy), N. Hazra (National Centre for Nuclear Research, ul. Pasteura 7, 02-093, Warsaw, Poland, Gran Sasso Science Institute, INAF - Osservatorio Astronomico d'Abruzzo, Via Maggini, 64100, Teramo, Italy), S. Mei (Université Paris Cité, CNRS, Astroparticule et Cosmologie, 75013 Paris, France, CNRS-UCB International Research Laboratory, Centre Pierre Binétruy, IRL2007, CPB-IN2P3, Berkeley, USA), A. Lançon (Université de Strasbourg, CNRS, Observatoire astronomique de Strasbourg, UMR 7550, 67000 Strasbourg, France), G. D'Ago (Institute of Astronomy, University of Cambridge, Madingley Road, Cambridge CB3 0HA, UK), R. Scaramella (INAF-Osservatorio Astronomico di Roma, Via Frascati 33, 00078 Monteporzio Catone, Italy), L. K. Hunt (INAF-Osservatorio Astrofisico di Arcetri, Largo E. Fermi 5, 50125, Firenze, Italy), J. -C. Cuillandre (Université Paris-Saclay, Université Paris Cité, CEA, CNRS, AIM, 91191, Gif-sur-Yvette, France), J. P. Blakeslee (NSF's NOIR, Lab 950 N. Cherry Avenue, Tucson, Arizona 85719, USA, Steward Observatory, University of Arizona, 933 N. Cherry Ave, Tucson, AZ 85750, USA), J. B. Jensen (Utah Valley University, Orem, UT 84058, USA), E. Brocato (INAF-Osservatorio Astronomico di Roma, Via Frascati 33, 00078 Monteporzio Catone, Italy), D. Carollo (INAF-Osservatorio Astronomico di Trieste, Via G. B. Tiepolo 11, 34143 Trieste, Italy), P. -A. Duc (Université de Strasbourg, CNRS, Observatoire astronomique de Strasbourg, UMR 7550, 67000 Strasbourg, France), M. Kluge (Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics, Giessenbachstr. 1, 85748 Garching, Germany), R. Laureijs (Kapteyn Astronomical Institute, University of Groningen, PO Box 800, 9700 AV Groningen, The Netherlands), O. Marchal (Université de Strasbourg, CNRS, Observatoire astronomique de Strasbourg, UMR 7550, 67000 Strasbourg, France), F. R. Marleau (Universität Innsbruck, Institut für Astro- und Teilchenphysik, Technikerstr. 25/8, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria), M. Mirabile (INAF - Osservatorio Astronomico d'Abruzzo, Via Maggini, 64100, Teramo, Italy, Gran Sasso Science Institute), R. F. Peletier (Kapteyn Astronomical Institute, University of Groningen, PO Box 800, 9700 AV Groningen, The Netherlands), M. Poulain (Space physics and astronomy research unit, University of Oulu, Pentti Kaiteran katu 1, FI-90014 Oulu, Finland), R. Sánchez-Janssen (Isaac Newton Group of Telescopes, Apartado 321, 38700 Santa Cruz de La Palma, Spain), T. Saifollahi (Université de Strasbourg, CNRS, Observatoire astronomique de Strasbourg, UMR 7550, 67000 Strasbourg, France), M. Schirmer (Max-Planck-Institut für Astronomie, Königstuhl 17, 69117 Heidelberg, Germany), E. Sola (Institute of Astronomy, University of Cambridge, Madingley Road, Cambridge CB3 0HA, UK), M. Urbano (School of Physics and Astronomy, University of Nottingham, University Park, Nottingham NG7 2RD, UK, Université de Strasbourg, CNRS, Observatoire astronomique de Strasbourg, UMR 7550, 67000 Strasbourg, France), K. Voggel (Université de Strasbourg, CNRS, Observatoire astronomique de Strasbourg, UMR 7550, 67000 Strasbourg, France), B. Altieri (ESAC/ESA, Camino Bajo del Castillo, s/n., Urb. Villafranca del Castillo, 28692 Villanueva de la Cañada, Madrid, Spain), S. Andreon (INAF-Osservatorio Astronomico di Brera, Via Brera 28, 20122 Milano, Italy), N. Auricchio (INAF-Osservatorio di Astrofisica e Scienza dello Spazio di Bologna, Via Piero Gobetti 93/3, 40129 Bologna, Italy), C. Baccigalupi (IFPU, Institute for Fundamental Physics of the Universe, via Beirut 2, 34151 Trieste, Italy, INAF-Osservatorio Astronomico di Trieste, Via G. B. Tiepolo 11, 34143 Trieste, Italy, INFN, Sezione di Trieste, Via Valerio 2, 34127 Trieste TS, Italy, SISSA, International School for Advanced Studies, Via Bonomea 265, 34136 Trieste TS, Italy), M. Baldi (Dipartimento di Fisica e Astronomia, Università di Bologna, Via Gobetti 93/2, 40129 Bologna, Italy, INAF-Osservatorio di Astrofisica e Scienza dello Spazio di Bologna, Via Piero Gobetti 93/3, 40129 Bologna, Italy, INFN-Sezione di Bologna, Viale Berti Pichat 6/2, 40127 Bologna, Italy), A. Balestra (INAF-Osservatorio Astronomico di Padova, Via dell'Osservatorio 5, 35122 Padova, Italy), S. Bardelli (INAF-Osservatorio di Astrofisica e Scienza dello Spazio di Bologna, Via Piero Gobetti 93/3, 40129 Bologna, Italy), P. Battaglia (INAF-Osservatorio di Astrofisica e Scienza dello Spazio di Bologna, Via Piero Gobetti 93/3, 40129 Bologna, Italy), R. Bender (Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics, Giessenbachstr. 1, 85748 Garching, Germany, Universitäts-Sternwarte München, Fakultät für Physik, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Scheinerstr. 1, 81679 München, Germany), A. Biviano (INAF-Osservatorio Astronomico di Trieste, Via G. B. Tiepolo 11, 34143 Trieste, Italy, IFPU, Institute for Fundamental Physics of the Universe, via Beirut 2, 34151 Trieste, Italy), E. Branchini (Dipartimento di Fisica, Università di Genova, Via Dodecaneso 33, 16146, Genova, Italy, INFN-Sezione di Genova, Via Dodecaneso 33, 16146, Genova, Italy, INAF-Osservatorio Astronomico di Brera, Via Brera 28, 20122 Milano, Italy), M. Brescia (Department of Physics "E. Pancini", University Federico II, Via Cinthia 6, 80126, Napoli, Italy, INAF-Osservatorio Astronomico di Capodimonte, Via Moiariello 16, 80131 Napoli, Italy), S. Camera (Dipartimento di Fisica, Università degli Studi di Torino, Via P. Giuria 1, 10125 Torino, Italy, INFN-Sezione di Torino, Via P. Giuria 1, 10125 Torino, Italy, INAF-Osservatorio Astrofisico di Torino, Via Osservatorio 20, 10025 Pino Torinese), V. Capobianco (INAF-Osservatorio Astrofisico di Torino, Via Osservatorio 20, 10025 Pino Torinese), C. Carbone (INAF-IASF Milano, Via Alfonso Corti 12, 20133 Milano, Italy), V. F. Cardone (INAF-Osservatorio Astronomico di Roma, Via Frascati 33, 00078 Monteporzio Catone, Italy, INFN-Sezione di Roma, Piazzale Aldo Moro, 2 - c/o Dipartimento di Fisica, Edificio G. Marconi, 00185 Roma, Italy), J. Carretero (Centro de Investigaciones Energéticas, Medioambientales y Tecnológicas, Port d'Informació Científica, Campus UAB, C. Albareda s/n, 08193 Bellaterra), S. Casas (Institute for Theoretical Particle Physics and Cosmology, Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt e. V), M. Castellano (INAF-Osservatorio Astronomico di Roma, Via Frascati 33, 00078 Monteporzio Catone, Italy), G. Castignani (INAF-Osservatorio di Astrofisica e Scienza dello Spazio di Bologna, Via Piero Gobetti 93/3, 40129 Bologna, Italy), S. Cavuoti (INAF-Osservatorio Astronomico di Capodimonte, Via Moiariello 16, 80131 Napoli, Italy, INFN section of Naples, Via Cinthia 6, 80126, Napoli, Italy), K. C. Chambers (Institute for Astronomy, University of Hawaii, 2680 Woodlawn Drive, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA), A. Cimatti (Dipartimento di Fisica e Astronomia "Augusto Righi" - Alma Mater Studiorum Università di Bologna, Viale Berti Pichat 6/2, 40127 Bologna, Italy), C. Colodro-Conde (Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias, E-38205 La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain), G. Congedo (Institute for Astronomy, University of Edinburgh, Royal Observatory, Blackford Hill, Edinburgh EH9 3HJ, UK), C. J. Conselice (Jodrell Bank Centre for Astrophysics, Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester M13 9PL, UK), L. Conversi (European Space Agency/ESRIN, Largo Galileo Galilei 1, 00044 Frascati, Roma, Italy, ESAC/ESA, Camino Bajo del Castillo, s/n., Urb. Villafranca del Castillo, 28692 Villanueva de la Cañada, Madrid, Spain), Y. Copin (Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS/IN2P3, IP2I Lyon, UMR 5822, Villeurbanne, F-69100, France), F. Courbin (Institut de Ciències del Cosmos, Institució Catalana de Recerca i Estudis Avançats, Institut de Ciencies de l'Espai), H. M. Courtois (UCB Lyon 1, CNRS/IN2P3, IUF, IP2I Lyon, 4 rue Enrico Fermi, 69622 Villeurbanne, France), M. Cropper (Mullard Space Science Laboratory, University College London, Holmbury St Mary, Dorking, Surrey RH5 6NT, UK), H. Degaudenzi (Department of Astronomy, University of Geneva, ch. d'Ecogia 16, 1290 Versoix, Switzerland), G. De Lucia (INAF-Osservatorio Astronomico di Trieste, Via G. B. Tiepolo 11, 34143 Trieste, Italy), H. Dole (Université Paris-Saclay, CNRS, Institut d'astrophysique spatiale, 91405, Orsay, France), F. Dubath (Department of Astronomy, University of Geneva, ch. d'Ecogia 16, 1290 Versoix, Switzerland), X. Dupac (ESAC/ESA, Camino Bajo del Castillo, s/n., Urb. Villafranca del Castillo, 28692 Villanueva de la Cañada, Madrid, Spain), S. Escoffier (Aix-Marseille Université, CNRS/IN2P3, CPPM, Marseille, France), M. Fabricius (Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics, Giessenbachstr. 1, 85748 Garching, Germany, Universitäts-Sternwarte München, Fakultät für Physik, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Scheinerstr. 1, 81679 München, Germany), M. Farina (INAF-Istituto di Astrofisica e Planetologia Spaziali, via del Fosso del Cavaliere, 100, 00100 Roma, Italy), R. Farinelli (INAF-Osservatorio di Astrofisica e Scienza dello Spazio di Bologna, Via Piero Gobetti 93/3, 40129 Bologna, Italy), S. Ferriol (Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS/IN2P3, IP2I Lyon, UMR 5822, Villeurbanne, F-69100, France), S. Fotopoulou (School of Physics, HH Wills Physics Laboratory, University of Bristol, Tyndall Avenue, Bristol, BS8 1TL, UK), M. Frailis (INAF-Osservatorio Astronomico di Trieste, Via G. B. Tiepolo 11, 34143 Trieste, Italy), E. Franceschi (INAF-Osservatorio di Astrofisica e Scienza dello Spazio di Bologna, Via Piero Gobetti 93/3, 40129 Bologna, Italy), M. Fumana (INAF-IASF Milano, Via Alfonso Corti 12, 20133 Milano, Italy), S. Galeotta (INAF-Osservatorio Astronomico di Trieste, Via G. B. Tiepolo 11, 34143 Trieste, Italy), K. George (University Observatory, LMU Faculty of Physics, Scheinerstr. 1, 81679 Munich, Germany), B. Gillis (Institute for Astronomy, University of Edinburgh, Royal Observatory, Blackford Hill, Edinburgh EH9 3HJ, UK), C. Giocoli (INAF-Osservatorio di Astrofisica e Scienza dello Spazio di Bologna, Via Piero Gobetti 93/3, 40129 Bologna, Italy, INFN-Sezione di Bologna, Viale Berti Pichat 6/2, 40127 Bologna, Italy), P. Gómez-Alvarez (FRACTAL S.L.N.E., calle Tulipán 2, Portal 13 1A, 28231, Las Rozas de Madrid, Spain, ESAC/ESA, Camino Bajo del Castillo, s/n., Urb. Villafranca del Castillo, 28692 Villanueva de la Cañada, Madrid, Spain), J. Gracia-Carpio (Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics, Giessenbachstr. 1, 85748 Garching, Germany), A. Grazian (INAF-Osservatorio Astronomico di Padova, Via dell'Osservatorio 5, 35122 Padova, Italy), F. Grupp (Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics, Giessenbachstr. 1, 85748 Garching, Germany, Universitäts-Sternwarte München, Fakultät für Physik, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Scheinerstr. 1, 81679 München, Germany), S. V. H. Haugan (Institute of Theoretical Astrophysics, University of Oslo, P.O. Box 1029 Blindern, 0315 Oslo, Norway), H. Hoekstra (Leiden Observatory, Leiden University, Einsteinweg 55, 2333 CC Leiden, The Netherlands), W. Holmes (Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, 4800 Oak Grove Drive, Pasadena, CA, 91109, USA), I. M. Hook (Department of Physics, Lancaster University, Lancaster, LA1 4YB, UK), F. Hormuth (Felix Hormuth Engineering, Goethestr. 17, 69181 Leimen, Germany), A. Hornstrup (Technical University of Denmark, Elektrovej 327, 2800 Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark, Cosmic Dawn Center), K. Jahnke (Max-Planck-Institut für Astronomie, Königstuhl 17, 69117 Heidelberg, Germany), M. Jhabvala (NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, MD 20771, USA), B. Joachimi (Department of Physics and Astronomy, University College London, Gower Street, London WC1E 6BT, UK), S. Kermiche (Aix-Marseille Université, CNRS/IN2P3, CPPM, Marseille, France), A. Kiessling (Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, 4800 Oak Grove Drive, Pasadena, CA, 91109, USA), B. Kubik (Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS/IN2P3, IP2I Lyon, UMR 5822, Villeurbanne, F-69100, France), M. Kümmel (Universitäts-Sternwarte München, Fakultät für Physik, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Scheinerstr. 1, 81679 München, Germany), M. Kunz (Université de Genève, Département de Physique Théorique and Centre for Astroparticle Physics, 24 quai Ernest-Ansermet, CH-1211 Genève 4, Switzerland), H. Kurki-Suonio (Department of Physics, P.O. Box 64, University of Helsinki, 00014 Helsinki, Finland, Helsinki Institute of Physics, Gustaf Hällströmin katu 2, University of Helsinki, 00014 Helsinki, Finland), A. M. C. Le Brun (Laboratoire d'etude de l'Univers et des phenomenes eXtremes, Observatoire de Paris, Université PSL, Sorbonne Université, CNRS, 92190 Meudon, France), P. B. Lilje (Institute of Theoretical Astrophysics, University of Oslo, P.O. Box 1029 Blindern, 0315 Oslo, Norway), V. Lindholm (Department of Physics, P.O. Box 64, University of Helsinki, 00014 Helsinki, Finland, Helsinki Institute of Physics, Gustaf Hällströmin katu 2, University of Helsinki, 00014 Helsinki, Finland), I. Lloro (SKAO, Jodrell Bank, Lower Withington, Macclesfield SK11 9FT, UK), G. Mainetti (Centre de Calcul de l'IN2P3/CNRS, 21 avenue Pierre de Coubertin 69627 Villeurbanne Cedex, France), O. Mansutti (INAF-Osservatorio Astronomico di Trieste, Via G. B. Tiepolo 11, 34143 Trieste, Italy), O. Marggraf (Universität Bonn, Argelander-Institut für Astronomie, Auf dem Hügel 71, 53121 Bonn, Germany), M. Martinelli (INAF-Osservatorio Astronomico di Roma, Via Frascati 33, 00078 Monteporzio Catone, Italy, INFN-Sezione di Roma, Piazzale Aldo Moro, 2 - c/o Dipartimento di Fisica, Edificio G. Marconi, 00185 Roma, Italy), N. Martinet (Aix-Marseille Université, CNRS, CNES, LAM, Marseille, France), F. Marulli (Dipartimento di Fisica e Astronomia "Augusto Righi" - Alma Mater Studiorum Università di Bologna, via Piero Gobetti 93/2, 40129 Bologna, Italy, INAF-Osservatorio di Astrofisica e Scienza dello Spazio di Bologna, Via Piero Gobetti 93/3, 40129 Bologna, Italy, INFN-Sezione di Bologna, Viale Berti Pichat 6/2, 40127 Bologna, Italy), R. J. Massey (Department of Physics, Institute for Computational Cosmology, Durham University, South Road, Durham, DH1 3LE, UK), E. Medinaceli (INAF-Osservatorio di Astrofisica e Scienza dello Spazio di Bologna, Via Piero Gobetti 93/3, 40129 Bologna, Italy), M. Melchior (University of Applied Sciences and Arts of Northwestern Switzerland, School of Engineering, 5210 Windisch, Switzerland), M. Meneghetti (INAF-Osservatorio di Astrofisica e Scienza dello Spazio di Bologna, Via Piero Gobetti 93/3, 40129 Bologna, Italy, INFN-Sezione di Bologna, Viale Berti Pichat 6/2, 40127 Bologna, Italy), E. Merlin (INAF-Osservatorio Astronomico di Roma, Via Frascati 33, 00078 Monteporzio Catone, Italy), G. Meylan (Institute of Physics, Laboratory of Astrophysics, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne), A. Mora (Telespazio UK S.L. for European Space Agency), M. Moresco (Dipartimento di Fisica e Astronomia "Augusto Righi" - Alma Mater Studiorum Università di Bologna, via Piero Gobetti 93/2, 40129 Bologna, Italy, INAF-Osservatorio di Astrofisica e Scienza dello Spazio di Bologna, Via Piero Gobetti 93/3, 40129 Bologna, Italy), L. Moscardini (Dipartimento di Fisica e Astronomia "Augusto Righi" - Alma Mater Studiorum Università di Bologna, via Piero Gobetti 93/2, 40129 Bologna, Italy, INAF-Osservatorio di Astrofisica e Scienza dello Spazio di Bologna, Via Piero Gobetti 93/3, 40129 Bologna, Italy, INFN-Sezione di Bologna, Viale Berti Pichat 6/2, 40127 Bologna, Italy), R. Nakajima (Universität Bonn, Argelander-Institut für Astronomie, Auf dem Hügel 71, 53121 Bonn, Germany), C. Neissner (Institut de Física d'Altes Energies, Port d'Informació Científica, Campus UAB, C. Albareda s/n, 08193 Bellaterra), R. C. Nichol (School of Mathematics and Physics, University of Surrey, Guildford, Surrey, GU2 7XH, UK), S. -M. Niemi (European Space Agency/ESTEC, Keplerlaan 1, 2201 AZ Noordwijk, The Netherlands), J. W. Nightingale (School of Mathematics, Statistics and Physics, Newcastle University, Herschel Building, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, NE1 7RU, UK), C. Padilla (Institut de Física d'Altes Energies), S. Paltani (Department of Astronomy, University of Geneva, ch. d'Ecogia 16, 1290 Versoix, Switzerland), F. Pasian (INAF-Osservatorio Astronomico di Trieste, Via G. B. Tiepolo 11, 34143 Trieste, Italy), K. Pedersen (DARK, Niels Bohr Institute, University of Copenhagen, Jagtvej 155, 2200 Copenhagen, Denmark), W. J. Percival (Waterloo Centre for Astrophysics, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario N2L 3G1, Canada, Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario N2L 3G1, Canada, Perimeter Institute for Theoretical Physics, Waterloo, Ontario N2L 2Y5, Canada), V. Pettorino (European Space Agency/ESTEC, Keplerlaan 1, 2201 AZ Noordwijk, The Netherlands), A. Pezzotta (INAF-Osservatorio Astronomico di Brera, Via Brera 28, 20122 Milano, Italy), S. Pires (Université Paris-Saclay, Université Paris Cité, CEA, CNRS, AIM, 91191, Gif-sur-Yvette, France), G. Polenta (Space Science Data Center, Italian Space Agency, via del Politecnico snc, 00133 Roma, Italy), M. Poncet (Centre National d'Etudes Spatiales -- Centre spatial de Toulouse, 18 avenue Edouard Belin, 31401 Toulouse Cedex 9, France), L. A. Popa (Institute of Space Science, Str. Atomistilor, nr. 409 Măgurele, Ilfov, 077125, Romania), L. Pozzetti (INAF-Osservatorio di Astrofisica e Scienza dello Spazio di Bologna, Via Piero Gobetti 93/3, 40129 Bologna, Italy), F. Raison (Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics, Giessenbachstr. 1, 85748 Garching, Germany), R. Rebolo (Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias, E-38205 La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientificas, Calle Serrano 117, 28006 Madrid, Spain, Universidad de La Laguna, Dpto. Astrofí sica, E-38206 La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain), A. Renzi (Dipartimento di Fisica e Astronomia "G. Galilei", Università di Padova, Via Marzolo 8, 35131 Padova, Italy, INFN-Padova, Via Marzolo 8, 35131 Padova, Italy, INAF-Osservatorio di Astrofisica e Scienza dello Spazio di Bologna, Via Piero Gobetti 93/3, 40129 Bologna, Italy), J. Rhodes (Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, 4800 Oak Grove Drive, Pasadena, CA, 91109, USA), G. Riccio (INAF - Osservatorio Astronomico d'Abruzzo, Via Maggini, 64100, Teramo, Italy), E. Romelli (INAF-Osservatorio Astronomico di Trieste, Via G. B. Tiepolo 11, 34143 Trieste, Italy), M. Roncarelli (INAF-Osservatorio di Astrofisica e Scienza dello Spazio di Bologna, Via Piero Gobetti 93/3, 40129 Bologna, Italy), B. Rusholme (Caltech/IPAC, 1200 E. California Blvd., Pasadena, CA 91125, USA), R. Saglia (Universitäts-Sternwarte München, Fakultät für Physik, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Scheinerstr. 1, 81679 München, Germany, Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics, Giessenbachstr. 1, 85748 Garching, Germany), Z. Sakr (Instituto de Física Teórica UAM-CSIC, Campus de Cantoblanco, 28049 Madrid, Spain, Institut de Recherche en Astrophysique et Planétologie, Université St Joseph, Faculty of Sciences, Beirut, Lebanon), D. Sapone (Departamento de Física, FCFM, Universidad de Chile, Blanco Encalada 2008, Santiago, Chile), B. Sartoris (Universitäts-Sternwarte München, Fakultät für Physik, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Scheinerstr. 1, 81679 München, Germany, INAF-Osservatorio Astronomico di Trieste, Via G. B. Tiepolo 11, 34143 Trieste, Italy), P. Schneider (Universität Bonn, Argelander-Institut für Astronomie, Auf dem Hügel 71, 53121 Bonn, Germany), M. Scodeggio (INAF-IASF Milano, Via Alfonso Corti 12, 20133 Milano, Italy), A. Secroun (Aix-Marseille Université, CNRS/IN2P3, CPPM, Marseille, France), E. Sihvola (Department of Physics and Helsinki Institute of Physics, Gustaf Hällströmin katu 2, University of Helsinki, 00014 Helsinki, Finland), P. Simon (Universität Bonn, Argelander-Institut für Astronomie, Auf dem Hügel 71, 53121 Bonn, Germany), C. Sirignano (Dipartimento di Fisica e Astronomia "G. Galilei", Università di Padova, Via Marzolo 8, 35131 Padova, Italy, INFN-Padova, Via Marzolo 8, 35131 Padova, Italy), G. Sirri (INFN-Sezione di Bologna, Viale Berti Pichat 6/2, 40127 Bologna, Italy), L. Stanco (INFN-Padova, Via Marzolo 8, 35131 Padova, Italy), P. Tallada-Crespí (Centro de Investigaciones Energéticas, Medioambientales y Tecnológicas, Port d'Informació Científica, Campus UAB, C. Albareda s/n, 08193 Bellaterra), A. N. Taylor (Institute for Astronomy, University of Edinburgh, Royal Observatory, Blackford Hill, Edinburgh EH9 3HJ, UK), H. I. Teplitz (Infrared Processing and Analysis Center, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA 91125, USA), I. Tereno (Departamento de Física, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade de Lisboa, Edifício C8, Campo Grande, PT1749-016 Lisboa, Portugal, Instituto de Astrofísica e Ciências do Espaço, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade de Lisboa, Tapada da Ajuda, 1349-018 Lisboa, Portugal), N. Tessore (Mullard Space Science Laboratory, University College London, Holmbury St Mary, Dorking, Surrey RH5 6NT, UK), S. Toft (Cosmic Dawn Center, Niels Bohr Institute, University of Copenhagen, Jagtvej 128, 2200 Copenhagen, Denmark), R. Toledo-Moreo (Universidad Politécnica de Cartagena, Departamento de Electrónica y Tecnología de Computadoras, Plaza del Hospital 1, 30202 Cartagena, Spain), F. Torradeflot (Port d'Informació Científica, Campus UAB, C. Albareda s/n, 08193 Bellaterra, Centro de Investigaciones Energéticas, Medioambientales y Tecnológicas), I. Tutusaus (Institute of Space Sciences, Institut d'Estudis Espacials de Catalunya, Institut de Recherche en Astrophysique et Planétologie), J. Valiviita (Department of Physics, P.O. Box 64, University of Helsinki, 00014 Helsinki, Finland, Helsinki Institute of Physics, Gustaf Hällströmin katu 2, University of Helsinki, 00014 Helsinki, Finland), T. Vassallo (INAF-Osservatorio Astronomico di Trieste, Via G. B. Tiepolo 11, 34143 Trieste, Italy, University Observatory, LMU Faculty of Physics, Scheinerstr. 1, 81679 Munich, Germany), G. Verdoes Kleijn (Kapteyn Astronomical Institute, University of Groningen, PO Box 800, 9700 AV Groningen, The Netherlands), A. Veropalumbo (INAF-Osservatorio Astronomico di Brera, Via Brera 28, 20122 Milano, Italy, INFN-Sezione di Genova, Via Dodecaneso 33, 16146, Genova, Italy, Dipartimento di Fisica, Università di Genova, Via Dodecaneso 33, 16146, Genova, Italy), Y. Wang (Caltech/IPAC, 1200 E. California Blvd., Pasadena, CA 91125, USA), J. Weller (Universitäts-Sternwarte München, Fakultät für Physik, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Scheinerstr. 1, 81679 München, Germany, Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics, Giessenbachstr. 1, 85748 Garching, Germany), G. Zamorani (INAF-Osservatorio di Astrofisica e Scienza dello Spazio di Bologna, Via Piero Gobetti 93/3, 40129 Bologna, Italy), F. M. Zerbi (INAF-Osservatorio Astronomico di Brera, Via Brera 28, 20122 Milano, Italy), I. A. Zinchenko (Astronomisches Rechen-Institut, Zentrum für Astronomie der Universität Heidelberg, Mönchhofstr. 12-14, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany), E. Zucca (INAF-Osservatorio di Astrofisica e Scienza dello Spazio di Bologna, Via Piero Gobetti 93/3, 40129 Bologna, Italy), M. Sereno (INAF-Osservatorio di Astrofisica e Scienza dello Spazio di Bologna, Via Piero Gobetti 93/3, 40129 Bologna, Italy, INFN-Sezione di Bologna, Viale Berti Pichat 6/2, 40127 Bologna, Italy)

Published 2026-07-20

📖 4 min read☕ Coffee break read

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Original authors: R. Habas (INAF - Osservatorio Astronomico d'Abruzzo, Via Maggini, 64100, Teramo, Italy), M. Cantiello (INAF - Osservatorio Astronomico d'Abruzzo, Via Maggini, 64100, Teramo, Italy), G. Riccio (INAF - Osservatorio Astronomico d'Abruzzo, Via Maggini, 64100, Teramo, Italy), G. Raimondo (INAF - Osservatorio Astronomico d'Abruzzo, Via Maggini, 64100, Teramo, Italy), N. Hazra (National Centre for Nuclear Research, ul. Pasteura 7, 02-093, Warsaw, Poland, Gran Sasso Science Institute, INAF - Osservatorio Astronomico d'Abruzzo, Via Maggini, 64100, Teramo, Italy), S. Mei (Université Paris Cité, CNRS, Astroparticule et Cosmologie, 75013 Paris, France, CNRS-UCB International Research Laboratory, Centre Pierre Binétruy, IRL2007, CPB-IN2P3, Berkeley, USA), A. Lançon (Université de Strasbourg, CNRS, Observatoire astronomique de Strasbourg, UMR 7550, 67000 Strasbourg, France), G. D'Ago (Institute of Astronomy, University of Cambridge, Madingley Road, Cambridge CB3 0HA, UK), R. Scaramella (INAF-Osservatorio Astronomico di Roma, Via Frascati 33, 00078 Monteporzio Catone, Italy), L. K. Hunt (INAF-Osservatorio Astrofisico di Arcetri, Largo E. Fermi 5, 50125, Firenze, Italy), J. -C. Cuillandre (Université Paris-Saclay, Université Paris Cité, CEA, CNRS, AIM, 91191, Gif-sur-Yvette, France), J. P. Blakeslee (NSF's NOIR, Lab 950 N. Cherry Avenue, Tucson, Arizona 85719, USA, Steward Observatory, University of Arizona, 933 N. Cherry Ave, Tucson, AZ 85750, USA), J. B. Jensen (Utah Valley University, Orem, UT 84058, USA), E. Brocato (INAF-Osservatorio Astronomico di Roma, Via Frascati 33, 00078 Monteporzio Catone, Italy), D. Carollo (INAF-Osservatorio Astronomico di Trieste, Via G. B. Tiepolo 11, 34143 Trieste, Italy), P. -A. Duc (Université de Strasbourg, CNRS, Observatoire astronomique de Strasbourg, UMR 7550, 67000 Strasbourg, France), M. Kluge (Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics, Giessenbachstr. 1, 85748 Garching, Germany), R. Laureijs (Kapteyn Astronomical Institute, University of Groningen, PO Box 800, 9700 AV Groningen, The Netherlands), O. Marchal (Université de Strasbourg, CNRS, Observatoire astronomique de Strasbourg, UMR 7550, 67000 Strasbourg, France), F. R. Marleau (Universität Innsbruck, Institut für Astro- und Teilchenphysik, Technikerstr. 25/8, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria), M. Mirabile (INAF - Osservatorio Astronomico d'Abruzzo, Via Maggini, 64100, Teramo, Italy, Gran Sasso Science Institute), R. F. Peletier (Kapteyn Astronomical Institute, University of Groningen, PO Box 800, 9700 AV Groningen, The Netherlands), M. Poulain (Space physics and astronomy research unit, University of Oulu, Pentti Kaiteran katu 1, FI-90014 Oulu, Finland), R. Sánchez-Janssen (Isaac Newton Group of Telescopes, Apartado 321, 38700 Santa Cruz de La Palma, Spain), T. Saifollahi (Université de Strasbourg, CNRS, Observatoire astronomique de Strasbourg, UMR 7550, 67000 Strasbourg, France), M. Schirmer (Max-Planck-Institut für Astronomie, Königstuhl 17, 69117 Heidelberg, Germany), E. Sola (Institute of Astronomy, University of Cambridge, Madingley Road, Cambridge CB3 0HA, UK), M. Urbano (School of Physics and Astronomy, University of Nottingham, University Park, Nottingham NG7 2RD, UK, Université de Strasbourg, CNRS, Observatoire astronomique de Strasbourg, UMR 7550, 67000 Strasbourg, France), K. Voggel (Université de Strasbourg, CNRS, Observatoire astronomique de Strasbourg, UMR 7550, 67000 Strasbourg, France), B. Altieri (ESAC/ESA, Camino Bajo del Castillo, s/n., Urb. Villafranca del Castillo, 28692 Villanueva de la Cañada, Madrid, Spain), S. Andreon (INAF-Osservatorio Astronomico di Brera, Via Brera 28, 20122 Milano, Italy), N. Auricchio (INAF-Osservatorio di Astrofisica e Scienza dello Spazio di Bologna, Via Piero Gobetti 93/3, 40129 Bologna, Italy), C. Baccigalupi (IFPU, Institute for Fundamental Physics of the Universe, via Beirut 2, 34151 Trieste, Italy, INAF-Osservatorio Astronomico di Trieste, Via G. B. Tiepolo 11, 34143 Trieste, Italy, INFN, Sezione di Trieste, Via Valerio 2, 34127 Trieste TS, Italy, SISSA, International School for Advanced Studies, Via Bonomea 265, 34136 Trieste TS, Italy), M. Baldi (Dipartimento di Fisica e Astronomia, Università di Bologna, Via Gobetti 93/2, 40129 Bologna, Italy, INAF-Osservatorio di Astrofisica e Scienza dello Spazio di Bologna, Via Piero Gobetti 93/3, 40129 Bologna, Italy, INFN-Sezione di Bologna, Viale Berti Pichat 6/2, 40127 Bologna, Italy), A. Balestra (INAF-Osservatorio Astronomico di Padova, Via dell'Osservatorio 5, 35122 Padova, Italy), S. Bardelli (INAF-Osservatorio di Astrofisica e Scienza dello Spazio di Bologna, Via Piero Gobetti 93/3, 40129 Bologna, Italy), P. Battaglia (INAF-Osservatorio di Astrofisica e Scienza dello Spazio di Bologna, Via Piero Gobetti 93/3, 40129 Bologna, Italy), R. Bender (Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics, Giessenbachstr. 1, 85748 Garching, Germany, Universitäts-Sternwarte München, Fakultät für Physik, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Scheinerstr. 1, 81679 München, Germany), A. Biviano (INAF-Osservatorio Astronomico di Trieste, Via G. B. Tiepolo 11, 34143 Trieste, Italy, IFPU, Institute for Fundamental Physics of the Universe, via Beirut 2, 34151 Trieste, Italy), E. Branchini (Dipartimento di Fisica, Università di Genova, Via Dodecaneso 33, 16146, Genova, Italy, INFN-Sezione di Genova, Via Dodecaneso 33, 16146, Genova, Italy, INAF-Osservatorio Astronomico di Brera, Via Brera 28, 20122 Milano, Italy), M. Brescia (Department of Physics "E. Pancini", University Federico II, Via Cinthia 6, 80126, Napoli, Italy, INAF-Osservatorio Astronomico di Capodimonte, Via Moiariello 16, 80131 Napoli, Italy), S. Camera (Dipartimento di Fisica, Università degli Studi di Torino, Via P. Giuria 1, 10125 Torino, Italy, INFN-Sezione di Torino, Via P. Giuria 1, 10125 Torino, Italy, INAF-Osservatorio Astrofisico di Torino, Via Osservatorio 20, 10025 Pino Torinese), V. Capobianco (INAF-Osservatorio Astrofisico di Torino, Via Osservatorio 20, 10025 Pino Torinese), C. Carbone (INAF-IASF Milano, Via Alfonso Corti 12, 20133 Milano, Italy), V. F. Cardone (INAF-Osservatorio Astronomico di Roma, Via Frascati 33, 00078 Monteporzio Catone, Italy, INFN-Sezione di Roma, Piazzale Aldo Moro, 2 - c/o Dipartimento di Fisica, Edificio G. Marconi, 00185 Roma, Italy), J. Carretero (Centro de Investigaciones Energéticas, Medioambientales y Tecnológicas, Port d'Informació Científica, Campus UAB, C. Albareda s/n, 08193 Bellaterra), S. Casas (Institute for Theoretical Particle Physics and Cosmology, Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt e. V), M. Castellano (INAF-Osservatorio Astronomico di Roma, Via Frascati 33, 00078 Monteporzio Catone, Italy), G. Castignani (INAF-Osservatorio di Astrofisica e Scienza dello Spazio di Bologna, Via Piero Gobetti 93/3, 40129 Bologna, Italy), S. Cavuoti (INAF-Osservatorio Astronomico di Capodimonte, Via Moiariello 16, 80131 Napoli, Italy, INFN section of Naples, Via Cinthia 6, 80126, Napoli, Italy), K. C. Chambers (Institute for Astronomy, University of Hawaii, 2680 Woodlawn Drive, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA), A. Cimatti (Dipartimento di Fisica e Astronomia "Augusto Righi" - Alma Mater Studiorum Università di Bologna, Viale Berti Pichat 6/2, 40127 Bologna, Italy), C. Colodro-Conde (Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias, E-38205 La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain), G. Congedo (Institute for Astronomy, University of Edinburgh, Royal Observatory, Blackford Hill, Edinburgh EH9 3HJ, UK), C. J. Conselice (Jodrell Bank Centre for Astrophysics, Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester M13 9PL, UK), L. Conversi (European Space Agency/ESRIN, Largo Galileo Galilei 1, 00044 Frascati, Roma, Italy, ESAC/ESA, Camino Bajo del Castillo, s/n., Urb. Villafranca del Castillo, 28692 Villanueva de la Cañada, Madrid, Spain), Y. Copin (Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS/IN2P3, IP2I Lyon, UMR 5822, Villeurbanne, F-69100, France), F. Courbin (Institut de Ciències del Cosmos, Institució Catalana de Recerca i Estudis Avançats, Institut de Ciencies de l'Espai), H. M. Courtois (UCB Lyon 1, CNRS/IN2P3, IUF, IP2I Lyon, 4 rue Enrico Fermi, 69622 Villeurbanne, France), M. Cropper (Mullard Space Science Laboratory, University College London, Holmbury St Mary, Dorking, Surrey RH5 6NT, UK), H. Degaudenzi (Department of Astronomy, University of Geneva, ch. d'Ecogia 16, 1290 Versoix, Switzerland), G. De Lucia (INAF-Osservatorio Astronomico di Trieste, Via G. B. Tiepolo 11, 34143 Trieste, Italy), H. Dole (Université Paris-Saclay, CNRS, Institut d'astrophysique spatiale, 91405, Orsay, France), F. Dubath (Department of Astronomy, University of Geneva, ch. d'Ecogia 16, 1290 Versoix, Switzerland), X. Dupac (ESAC/ESA, Camino Bajo del Castillo, s/n., Urb. Villafranca del Castillo, 28692 Villanueva de la Cañada, Madrid, Spain), S. Escoffier (Aix-Marseille Université, CNRS/IN2P3, CPPM, Marseille, France), M. Fabricius (Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics, Giessenbachstr. 1, 85748 Garching, Germany, Universitäts-Sternwarte München, Fakultät für Physik, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Scheinerstr. 1, 81679 München, Germany), M. Farina (INAF-Istituto di Astrofisica e Planetologia Spaziali, via del Fosso del Cavaliere, 100, 00100 Roma, Italy), R. Farinelli (INAF-Osservatorio di Astrofisica e Scienza dello Spazio di Bologna, Via Piero Gobetti 93/3, 40129 Bologna, Italy), S. Ferriol (Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS/IN2P3, IP2I Lyon, UMR 5822, Villeurbanne, F-69100, France), S. Fotopoulou (School of Physics, HH Wills Physics Laboratory, University of Bristol, Tyndall Avenue, Bristol, BS8 1TL, UK), M. Frailis (INAF-Osservatorio Astronomico di Trieste, Via G. B. Tiepolo 11, 34143 Trieste, Italy), E. Franceschi (INAF-Osservatorio di Astrofisica e Scienza dello Spazio di Bologna, Via Piero Gobetti 93/3, 40129 Bologna, Italy), M. Fumana (INAF-IASF Milano, Via Alfonso Corti 12, 20133 Milano, Italy), S. Galeotta (INAF-Osservatorio Astronomico di Trieste, Via G. B. Tiepolo 11, 34143 Trieste, Italy), K. George (University Observatory, LMU Faculty of Physics, Scheinerstr. 1, 81679 Munich, Germany), B. Gillis (Institute for Astronomy, University of Edinburgh, Royal Observatory, Blackford Hill, Edinburgh EH9 3HJ, UK), C. Giocoli (INAF-Osservatorio di Astrofisica e Scienza dello Spazio di Bologna, Via Piero Gobetti 93/3, 40129 Bologna, Italy, INFN-Sezione di Bologna, Viale Berti Pichat 6/2, 40127 Bologna, Italy), P. Gómez-Alvarez (FRACTAL S.L.N.E., calle Tulipán 2, Portal 13 1A, 28231, Las Rozas de Madrid, Spain, ESAC/ESA, Camino Bajo del Castillo, s/n., Urb. Villafranca del Castillo, 28692 Villanueva de la Cañada, Madrid, Spain), J. Gracia-Carpio (Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics, Giessenbachstr. 1, 85748 Garching, Germany), A. Grazian (INAF-Osservatorio Astronomico di Padova, Via dell'Osservatorio 5, 35122 Padova, Italy), F. Grupp (Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics, Giessenbachstr. 1, 85748 Garching, Germany, Universitäts-Sternwarte München, Fakultät für Physik, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Scheinerstr. 1, 81679 München, Germany), S. V. H. Haugan (Institute of Theoretical Astrophysics, University of Oslo, P.O. Box 1029 Blindern, 0315 Oslo, Norway), H. Hoekstra (Leiden Observatory, Leiden University, Einsteinweg 55, 2333 CC Leiden, The Netherlands), W. Holmes (Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, 4800 Oak Grove Drive, Pasadena, CA, 91109, USA), I. M. Hook (Department of Physics, Lancaster University, Lancaster, LA1 4YB, UK), F. Hormuth (Felix Hormuth Engineering, Goethestr. 17, 69181 Leimen, Germany), A. Hornstrup (Technical University of Denmark, Elektrovej 327, 2800 Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark, Cosmic Dawn Center), K. Jahnke (Max-Planck-Institut für Astronomie, Königstuhl 17, 69117 Heidelberg, Germany), M. Jhabvala (NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, MD 20771, USA), B. Joachimi (Department of Physics and Astronomy, University College London, Gower Street, London WC1E 6BT, UK), S. Kermiche (Aix-Marseille Université, CNRS/IN2P3, CPPM, Marseille, France), A. Kiessling (Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, 4800 Oak Grove Drive, Pasadena, CA, 91109, USA), B. Kubik (Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS/IN2P3, IP2I Lyon, UMR 5822, Villeurbanne, F-69100, France), M. Kümmel (Universitäts-Sternwarte München, Fakultät für Physik, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Scheinerstr. 1, 81679 München, Germany), M. Kunz (Université de Genève, Département de Physique Théorique and Centre for Astroparticle Physics, 24 quai Ernest-Ansermet, CH-1211 Genève 4, Switzerland), H. Kurki-Suonio (Department of Physics, P.O. Box 64, University of Helsinki, 00014 Helsinki, Finland, Helsinki Institute of Physics, Gustaf Hällströmin katu 2, University of Helsinki, 00014 Helsinki, Finland), A. M. C. Le Brun (Laboratoire d'etude de l'Univers et des phenomenes eXtremes, Observatoire de Paris, Université PSL, Sorbonne Université, CNRS, 92190 Meudon, France), P. B. Lilje (Institute of Theoretical Astrophysics, University of Oslo, P.O. Box 1029 Blindern, 0315 Oslo, Norway), V. Lindholm (Department of Physics, P.O. Box 64, University of Helsinki, 00014 Helsinki, Finland, Helsinki Institute of Physics, Gustaf Hällströmin katu 2, University of Helsinki, 00014 Helsinki, Finland), I. Lloro (SKAO, Jodrell Bank, Lower Withington, Macclesfield SK11 9FT, UK), G. Mainetti (Centre de Calcul de l'IN2P3/CNRS, 21 avenue Pierre de Coubertin 69627 Villeurbanne Cedex, France), O. Mansutti (INAF-Osservatorio Astronomico di Trieste, Via G. B. Tiepolo 11, 34143 Trieste, Italy), O. Marggraf (Universität Bonn, Argelander-Institut für Astronomie, Auf dem Hügel 71, 53121 Bonn, Germany), M. Martinelli (INAF-Osservatorio Astronomico di Roma, Via Frascati 33, 00078 Monteporzio Catone, Italy, INFN-Sezione di Roma, Piazzale Aldo Moro, 2 - c/o Dipartimento di Fisica, Edificio G. Marconi, 00185 Roma, Italy), N. Martinet (Aix-Marseille Université, CNRS, CNES, LAM, Marseille, France), F. Marulli (Dipartimento di Fisica e Astronomia "Augusto Righi" - Alma Mater Studiorum Università di Bologna, via Piero Gobetti 93/2, 40129 Bologna, Italy, INAF-Osservatorio di Astrofisica e Scienza dello Spazio di Bologna, Via Piero Gobetti 93/3, 40129 Bologna, Italy, INFN-Sezione di Bologna, Viale Berti Pichat 6/2, 40127 Bologna, Italy), R. J. Massey (Department of Physics, Institute for Computational Cosmology, Durham University, South Road, Durham, DH1 3LE, UK), E. Medinaceli (INAF-Osservatorio di Astrofisica e Scienza dello Spazio di Bologna, Via Piero Gobetti 93/3, 40129 Bologna, Italy), M. Melchior (University of Applied Sciences and Arts of Northwestern Switzerland, School of Engineering, 5210 Windisch, Switzerland), M. Meneghetti (INAF-Osservatorio di Astrofisica e Scienza dello Spazio di Bologna, Via Piero Gobetti 93/3, 40129 Bologna, Italy, INFN-Sezione di Bologna, Viale Berti Pichat 6/2, 40127 Bologna, Italy), E. Merlin (INAF-Osservatorio Astronomico di Roma, Via Frascati 33, 00078 Monteporzio Catone, Italy), G. Meylan (Institute of Physics, Laboratory of Astrophysics, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne), A. Mora (Telespazio UK S.L. for European Space Agency), M. Moresco (Dipartimento di Fisica e Astronomia "Augusto Righi" - Alma Mater Studiorum Università di Bologna, via Piero Gobetti 93/2, 40129 Bologna, Italy, INAF-Osservatorio di Astrofisica e Scienza dello Spazio di Bologna, Via Piero Gobetti 93/3, 40129 Bologna, Italy), L. Moscardini (Dipartimento di Fisica e Astronomia "Augusto Righi" - Alma Mater Studiorum Università di Bologna, via Piero Gobetti 93/2, 40129 Bologna, Italy, INAF-Osservatorio di Astrofisica e Scienza dello Spazio di Bologna, Via Piero Gobetti 93/3, 40129 Bologna, Italy, INFN-Sezione di Bologna, Viale Berti Pichat 6/2, 40127 Bologna, Italy), R. Nakajima (Universität Bonn, Argelander-Institut für Astronomie, Auf dem Hügel 71, 53121 Bonn, Germany), C. Neissner (Institut de Física d'Altes Energies, Port d'Informació Científica, Campus UAB, C. Albareda s/n, 08193 Bellaterra), R. C. Nichol (School of Mathematics and Physics, University of Surrey, Guildford, Surrey, GU2 7XH, UK), S. -M. Niemi (European Space Agency/ESTEC, Keplerlaan 1, 2201 AZ Noordwijk, The Netherlands), J. W. Nightingale (School of Mathematics, Statistics and Physics, Newcastle University, Herschel Building, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, NE1 7RU, UK), C. Padilla (Institut de Física d'Altes Energies), S. Paltani (Department of Astronomy, University of Geneva, ch. d'Ecogia 16, 1290 Versoix, Switzerland), F. Pasian (INAF-Osservatorio Astronomico di Trieste, Via G. B. Tiepolo 11, 34143 Trieste, Italy), K. Pedersen (DARK, Niels Bohr Institute, University of Copenhagen, Jagtvej 155, 2200 Copenhagen, Denmark), W. J. Percival (Waterloo Centre for Astrophysics, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario N2L 3G1, Canada, Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario N2L 3G1, Canada, Perimeter Institute for Theoretical Physics, Waterloo, Ontario N2L 2Y5, Canada), V. Pettorino (European Space Agency/ESTEC, Keplerlaan 1, 2201 AZ Noordwijk, The Netherlands), A. Pezzotta (INAF-Osservatorio Astronomico di Brera, Via Brera 28, 20122 Milano, Italy), S. Pires (Université Paris-Saclay, Université Paris Cité, CEA, CNRS, AIM, 91191, Gif-sur-Yvette, France), G. Polenta (Space Science Data Center, Italian Space Agency, via del Politecnico snc, 00133 Roma, Italy), M. Poncet (Centre National d'Etudes Spatiales -- Centre spatial de Toulouse, 18 avenue Edouard Belin, 31401 Toulouse Cedex 9, France), L. A. Popa (Institute of Space Science, Str. Atomistilor, nr. 409 Măgurele, Ilfov, 077125, Romania), L. Pozzetti (INAF-Osservatorio di Astrofisica e Scienza dello Spazio di Bologna, Via Piero Gobetti 93/3, 40129 Bologna, Italy), F. Raison (Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics, Giessenbachstr. 1, 85748 Garching, Germany), R. Rebolo (Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias, E-38205 La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientificas, Calle Serrano 117, 28006 Madrid, Spain, Universidad de La Laguna, Dpto. Astrofí sica, E-38206 La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain), A. Renzi (Dipartimento di Fisica e Astronomia "G. Galilei", Università di Padova, Via Marzolo 8, 35131 Padova, Italy, INFN-Padova, Via Marzolo 8, 35131 Padova, Italy, INAF-Osservatorio di Astrofisica e Scienza dello Spazio di Bologna, Via Piero Gobetti 93/3, 40129 Bologna, Italy), J. Rhodes (Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, 4800 Oak Grove Drive, Pasadena, CA, 91109, USA), G. Riccio (INAF - Osservatorio Astronomico d'Abruzzo, Via Maggini, 64100, Teramo, Italy), E. Romelli (INAF-Osservatorio Astronomico di Trieste, Via G. B. Tiepolo 11, 34143 Trieste, Italy), M. Roncarelli (INAF-Osservatorio di Astrofisica e Scienza dello Spazio di Bologna, Via Piero Gobetti 93/3, 40129 Bologna, Italy), B. Rusholme (Caltech/IPAC, 1200 E. California Blvd., Pasadena, CA 91125, USA), R. Saglia (Universitäts-Sternwarte München, Fakultät für Physik, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Scheinerstr. 1, 81679 München, Germany, Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics, Giessenbachstr. 1, 85748 Garching, Germany), Z. Sakr (Instituto de Física Teórica UAM-CSIC, Campus de Cantoblanco, 28049 Madrid, Spain, Institut de Recherche en Astrophysique et Planétologie, Université St Joseph, Faculty of Sciences, Beirut, Lebanon), D. Sapone (Departamento de Física, FCFM, Universidad de Chile, Blanco Encalada 2008, Santiago, Chile), B. Sartoris (Universitäts-Sternwarte München, Fakultät für Physik, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Scheinerstr. 1, 81679 München, Germany, INAF-Osservatorio Astronomico di Trieste, Via G. B. Tiepolo 11, 34143 Trieste, Italy), P. Schneider (Universität Bonn, Argelander-Institut für Astronomie, Auf dem Hügel 71, 53121 Bonn, Germany), M. Scodeggio (INAF-IASF Milano, Via Alfonso Corti 12, 20133 Milano, Italy), A. Secroun (Aix-Marseille Université, CNRS/IN2P3, CPPM, Marseille, France), E. Sihvola (Department of Physics and Helsinki Institute of Physics, Gustaf Hällströmin katu 2, University of Helsinki, 00014 Helsinki, Finland), P. Simon (Universität Bonn, Argelander-Institut für Astronomie, Auf dem Hügel 71, 53121 Bonn, Germany), C. Sirignano (Dipartimento di Fisica e Astronomia "G. Galilei", Università di Padova, Via Marzolo 8, 35131 Padova, Italy, INFN-Padova, Via Marzolo 8, 35131 Padova, Italy), G. Sirri (INFN-Sezione di Bologna, Viale Berti Pichat 6/2, 40127 Bologna, Italy), L. Stanco (INFN-Padova, Via Marzolo 8, 35131 Padova, Italy), P. Tallada-Crespí (Centro de Investigaciones Energéticas, Medioambientales y Tecnológicas, Port d'Informació Científica, Campus UAB, C. Albareda s/n, 08193 Bellaterra), A. N. Taylor (Institute for Astronomy, University of Edinburgh, Royal Observatory, Blackford Hill, Edinburgh EH9 3HJ, UK), H. I. Teplitz (Infrared Processing and Analysis Center, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA 91125, USA), I. Tereno (Departamento de Física, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade de Lisboa, Edifício C8, Campo Grande, PT1749-016 Lisboa, Portugal, Instituto de Astrofísica e Ciências do Espaço, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade de Lisboa, Tapada da Ajuda, 1349-018 Lisboa, Portugal), N. Tessore (Mullard Space Science Laboratory, University College London, Holmbury St Mary, Dorking, Surrey RH5 6NT, UK), S. Toft (Cosmic Dawn Center, Niels Bohr Institute, University of Copenhagen, Jagtvej 128, 2200 Copenhagen, Denmark), R. Toledo-Moreo (Universidad Politécnica de Cartagena, Departamento de Electrónica y Tecnología de Computadoras, Plaza del Hospital 1, 30202 Cartagena, Spain), F. Torradeflot (Port d'Informació Científica, Campus UAB, C. Albareda s/n, 08193 Bellaterra, Centro de Investigaciones Energéticas, Medioambientales y Tecnológicas), I. Tutusaus (Institute of Space Sciences, Institut d'Estudis Espacials de Catalunya, Institut de Recherche en Astrophysique et Planétologie), J. Valiviita (Department of Physics, P.O. Box 64, University of Helsinki, 00014 Helsinki, Finland, Helsinki Institute of Physics, Gustaf Hällströmin katu 2, University of Helsinki, 00014 Helsinki, Finland), T. Vassallo (INAF-Osservatorio Astronomico di Trieste, Via G. B. Tiepolo 11, 34143 Trieste, Italy, University Observatory, LMU Faculty of Physics, Scheinerstr. 1, 81679 Munich, Germany), G. Verdoes Kleijn (Kapteyn Astronomical Institute, University of Groningen, PO Box 800, 9700 AV Groningen, The Netherlands), A. Veropalumbo (INAF-Osservatorio Astronomico di Brera, Via Brera 28, 20122 Milano, Italy, INFN-Sezione di Genova, Via Dodecaneso 33, 16146, Genova, Italy, Dipartimento di Fisica, Università di Genova, Via Dodecaneso 33, 16146, Genova, Italy), Y. Wang (Caltech/IPAC, 1200 E. California Blvd., Pasadena, CA 91125, USA), J. Weller (Universitäts-Sternwarte München, Fakultät für Physik, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Scheinerstr. 1, 81679 München, Germany, Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics, Giessenbachstr. 1, 85748 Garching, Germany), G. Zamorani (INAF-Osservatorio di Astrofisica e Scienza dello Spazio di Bologna, Via Piero Gobetti 93/3, 40129 Bologna, Italy), F. M. Zerbi (INAF-Osservatorio Astronomico di Brera, Via Brera 28, 20122 Milano, Italy), I. A. Zinchenko (Astronomisches Rechen-Institut, Zentrum für Astronomie der Universität Heidelberg, Mönchhofstr. 12-14, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany), E. Zucca (INAF-Osservatorio di Astrofisica e Scienza dello Spazio di Bologna, Via Piero Gobetti 93/3, 40129 Bologna, Italy), M. Sereno (INAF-Osservatorio di Astrofisica e Scienza dello Spazio di Bologna, Via Piero Gobetti 93/3, 40129 Bologna, Italy, INFN-Sezione di Bologna, Viale Berti Pichat 6/2, 40127 Bologna, Italy)

Original paper licensed under CC BY 4.0 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). ✨ This is an AI-generated explanation of the paper below. It is not written or endorsed by the authors. For technical accuracy, refer to the original paper. Read full disclaimer

Imagine the universe as a giant, cosmic ocean, and galaxies as islands floating within it. For centuries, astronomers have been trying to map the distances between these islands, but the ocean is vast and dark, making it hard to tell how far away one island is from another. One of the most clever tricks scientists use to measure these distances is called "Surface Brightness Fluctuations" (SBF). Think of a galaxy not as a smooth, glowing cloud, but as a crowd of billions of tiny stars. If you look at a galaxy from very far away, it looks like a smooth blur. But if you zoom in close enough, you start to see the graininess of the crowd—some pixels on your camera are slightly brighter because they happen to catch a few more stars than their neighbors. This "graininess" is the fluctuation. The key rule is simple: the farther away the galaxy is, the smoother the graininess looks, because the individual stars blur together more. By measuring how "grainy" the light is, astronomers can calculate exactly how far away the galaxy is, without needing to know how fast it's moving or what it's made of. This method is like judging the distance to a distant concert by how clearly you can hear the individual voices in the crowd versus a smooth hum.

Now, enter the Euclid mission, a powerful new space telescope designed to take the most detailed pictures of the universe ever seen. Scientists are excited because Euclid is going to photograph billions of galaxies, offering a golden opportunity to use this "graininess" trick on a massive scale. However, there's a catch: Euclid's cameras are so new and its data processing so different from what astronomers are used to that no one was sure if the "graininess" could even be measured accurately with its pictures. It's like trying to measure the texture of a fabric using a brand-new type of microscope that no one has ever used for fabric before. The big question was: Can we trust Euclid's images to tell us how far away galaxies are, or will the new technology mess up the measurement?

This paper is the first time scientists have tried to use Euclid's early pictures to measure these cosmic distances. The team, led by R. Habas and M. Cantiello, focused on the Fornax galaxy cluster, a nearby group of galaxies that is already well-studied. They used a new, automated computer program they built called "FAST-SBF" to analyze the graininess of the light in Euclid's images. Their goal was to see if the telescope's data could produce reliable distance measurements and to create a "ruler" (a calibration) that could be used for thousands of other galaxies in the future.

The results are a resounding "yes, but with a few caveats." The team successfully measured the distances to 15 galaxies in the Fornax cluster and found that their measurements matched up very well with what we already knew from other methods. They then tested their new ruler on galaxies in two other locations: the Perseus cluster and a group of dwarf galaxies orbiting a galaxy called NGC 6744. In both cases, the distances they calculated were consistent with previous estimates, suggesting that Euclid's data is indeed robust enough for this tricky measurement.

However, the paper also highlights that Euclid's standard data processing isn't perfect for this specific job. The way the telescope combines its images can sometimes smooth out the "graininess" too much, making it harder to measure. The authors suggest that while the current data works, future processing methods might need to be tweaked to get the best possible results. They also compared their findings with computer models of how stars should behave. The match was generally good, though there were some hints that the models might need a little fine-tuning regarding a specific phase of a star's life (called the TP-AGB phase), which affects how bright the "graininess" appears.

In short, this paper proves that Euclid is a game-changer for measuring the universe. It shows that even with a new and slightly imperfect data pipeline, we can already use its images to map the distances to nearby galaxies with surprising accuracy. It's a successful first step that paves the way for a future where we can map the entire local universe with unprecedented detail, turning the "grainy" light of distant stars into a precise cosmic map.

Technical Summary: Euclid: Calibrating distances from surface brightness fluctuations with Early Release Observations of the Fornax cluster

Problem and Context
The Euclid mission is poised to observe approximately 14,000 deg² of the sky, imaging billions of galaxies. While the mission's spatial coverage, resolution, and depth make it ideal for mapping the 3D structure of the nearby Universe using Surface Brightness Fluctuations (SBF), the method requires standardization for Euclid's specific passbands before large-scale application can commence. SBF measures redshift-independent distances by analyzing pixel-to-pixel flux variations caused by the statistical distribution of stars. However, the amplitude of these fluctuations depends on the underlying stellar population (age and metallicity), necessitating a calibration of the absolute fluctuation magnitude ( $M_{SBF}$ ) as a function of color. Furthermore, the standard Euclid data reduction pipeline is not optimized for SBF, particularly regarding the interpolation kernels used for image stacking, which can introduce correlations that mimic or obscure the SBF signal.

Methodology
This study presents the first application of SBF to Euclid data, utilizing the Early Release Observations (ERO) of the Fornax galaxy cluster. The authors employed the FAST-SBF code, a Python-based, largely automated tool designed to measure stellar fluctuation amplitudes. The methodology involved:

Data Selection: The team analyzed the Fornax cluster (used for calibration), the Perseus cluster, and dwarf satellite candidates around NGC 6744 (used for testing). They utilized the $I_E$ (visible) and $H_E$ (near-infrared) bands.
Pipeline Adaptation: Unlike the standard Euclid pipeline which uses bilinear kernels, the ERO pipeline applied a Lanczos3 kernel for stacking $I_E$ images. This was critical for SBF as it minimizes pixel correlations in the spatial power spectrum, preserving the assumption of independent pixel noise required for the technique.
Measurement Process:
- Pre-processing: Local sky background subtraction, galaxy modeling, and masking of compact/extended sources (globular clusters, background galaxies).
- Power Spectrum Analysis: The residual image was converted to Fourier space. The amplitude of the fluctuations ( $P_0$ ) was extracted by fitting the azimuthally averaged radial power spectrum ( $P(k) = P_0 E(k) + P_1$ ) against the Point Spread Function (PSF) expectation.
- Correction: Contributions from undetected globular clusters and background galaxies were estimated and subtracted.
- Calibration: The apparent SBF magnitude ( $m_{I_E}$ ) and color ( $(I_E - H_E)$ ) were measured in the same annulus. The absolute magnitude ( $M_{I_E}$ ) was derived using the known distance to the Fornax cluster ( $d = 19.3 \pm 0.7$ Mpc, based on TRGB measurements).
Validation: The robustness of the fits was tested by varying parameters such as the fitting window, the source masking threshold ( $\kappa$ ), and the annulus size. Results were also compared against Stellar Population Tools (SPoT) simple stellar population (SSP) models.

Key Results

Feasibility: Despite the Euclid pipeline not being optimized for SBF, the authors successfully extracted robust distance measurements. The use of the Lanczos3 kernel in the ERO data was sufficient to recover reliable fluctuation amplitudes.
Calibration: A calibration relation for the absolute SBF magnitude in the $I_E$ band was established for 15 Fornax galaxies (massive and dwarf) with robust measurements:
$M_{I_E,0} = -0.78 + 0.76x + 0.66x^2 + 9.87x^3$
where $x = (I_E - H_E)_0 - 0.65$ . Massive galaxies followed this relation tightly ( $\Delta m < 0.1$ ), while dwarfs showed larger scatter ( $\Delta m < 0.2$ ), consistent with literature expectations.
Distance Verification:
- Perseus Cluster: Applying the Fornax calibration to 7 robust Perseus galaxies yielded a distance of $d = 69.5^{+4.6}_{-4.4}$ Mpc, consistent with the literature aggregate of $72 \pm 3$ Mpc. One galaxy was identified as a foreground object moving toward the cluster at high velocity, demonstrating SBF's ability to distinguish cluster membership independent of redshift.
- NGC 6744: Measurements of dwarf satellites around NGC 6744 yielded a distance of $d = 9.6^{+0.5}_{-0.4}$ Mpc, agreeing well with TRGB measurements ( $9.39 \pm 0.43$ Mpc).
Stellar Population Comparison: The measured $M_{I_E}$ vs. color relation showed good agreement with SPoT SSP models. Models including Thermally Pulsing Asymptotic Giant Branch (TP-AGB) stars provided a better fit for the data, particularly regarding metallicity trends, though discrepancies at intermediate colors suggest potential variations in TP-AGB populations across galaxy mass regimes.
Limitations: The current calibration is sensitive to the bluest galaxies in the sample. Dwarf galaxies near massive neighbors suffered from contamination, and the smallest/faintest dwarfs exhibited unstable fits due to low pixel statistics.

Significance and Claims
The paper claims that Euclid data, even in its current ERO form, is capable of measuring SBF distances with reasonable precision, validating the method for future large-scale surveys. The primary contribution is the establishment of a first-generation zero-point calibration for the $I_E$ band, enabling distance measurements for thousands of galaxies in upcoming Euclid Wide Survey (EWS) releases.

The authors emphasize that while the current standard pipeline uses bilinear interpolation (unsuitable for SBF), the ERO strategy using Lanczos3 kernels proves the concept. They assert that with future dedicated data products (e.g., from the MERge Processing Function) and the larger sample sizes expected from the EWS, SBF will become a powerful tool for:

Mapping the 3D structure of the nearby Universe with high statistical power.
Probing the underlying stellar populations (age and metallicity) of unresolved galaxies by comparing SBF magnitudes and colors against stellar population models.

The study concludes that while the current sample is small and the calibration modest, the technique is robust enough to be expanded significantly in future Euclid data releases, potentially offering a unique, redshift-independent distance indicator for the local Universe.

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