Updated Upper Limits on the Isotropic Gravitational-Wave Background from LIGO, Virgo, and KAGRA Data through April 2025
Using LIGO, Virgo, and KAGRA data through April 2025 and implementing new frequency-domain cuts to mitigate spectral noise, the collaboration found no evidence of an isotropic stochastic gravitational-wave background, setting improved upper limits on its energy density and predicting a compact binary background amplitude of 6.3−2.2+5.0×10−10 at 25 Hz based on the GWTC-5.0 catalog.
Original authors: The LIGO Scientific Collaboration, the Virgo Collaboration, the KAGRA Collaboration, A. G. Abac, A. Abe, I. Abouelfettouh, F. Acernese, K. Ackley, A. Adam, C. Adamcewicz, S. Adhicary, D. Adhikari, R. X. Adhikari, V. K. Adkins, S. Afroz, A. Agapito, D. Agarwal, M. Agathos, N. Aggarwal, S. Aggarwal, O. D. Aguiar, I. -L. Ahrend, L. Aiello, A. Ain, P. Ajith, T. Akutsu, L. Albers, W. Ali, S. Al-Kershi, C. Allene, A. Allocca, S. Al-Shammari, J. A. Alvarez, S. Alvarez-Lopez, W. Amar, O. Amarasinghe, A. Amato, F. Amicucci, C. Amra, A. B. Anand, C. Anand, A. Ananyeva, S. B. Anderson, W. G. Anderson, M. Andia, M. Ando, F. Andrade-Oliveira, M. Andrés-Carcasona, J. L. Andrey, T. Andrić, J. Anglin, J. Anna, J. M. Antelis, S. Antier, T. Aoki, M. Aoumi, E. Z. Appavuravther, E. A. Appelt, S. Appert, S. K. Apple, K. Arai, A. Araya, M. C. Araya, F. Arciprete, J. S. Areeda, N. Aritomi, F. Armato, S. Armstrong, N. Arnaud, M. Arogeti, S. M. Aronson, G. Ashton, Y. Aso, L. Asprea, M. Assiduo, S. Assis de Souza Melo, S. M. Aston, P. Astone, P. S. Aswathi, F. Attadio, F. Aubin, K. AultONeal, G. Avallone, N. Avdeev, E. A. Avila, S. Babak, C. Badger, S. Bae, S. Bagnasco, S. Baimukhametova, L. Baiotti, T. Baka, K. A. Baker, T. Baker, G. Balbi, G. Baldi, N. Baldicchi, M. Ball, G. Ballardin, M. Ballelli, S. W. Ballmer, S. Banagiri, B. Banerjee, D. Bankar, T. M. Baptiste, P. Baral, M. Baratti, J. C. Barayoga, K. Baric, B. C. Barish, D. Barker, N. Barman, F. Barone, B. Barr, M. Barrios, L. Barsotti, M. Barsuglia, D. Barta, M. A. Barton, I. Bartos, A. Basalaev, R. Bassiri, A. Basti, M. Bawaj, J. C. Bayley, A. C. Baylor, P. A. Baynard II, M. Bazzan, V. M. Bedakihale, F. Beirnaert, M. Bejger, A. S. Bell, C. Bellani, D. S. Bellie, D. Beltran-Martinez, E. Benedetti, W. Benoit, I. Bentara, M. Ben Yaala, S. Bera, F. Bergamin, B. K. Berger, M. Beroiz, I. Berry, D. Bersanetti, T. Bertheas, A. Bertolini, J. Betzwieser, D. Beveridge, N. Bevins, J. Bezerra-Sobrinho, R. Bhandare, R. Bhatt, A. Bhattacharjee, D. Bhattacharjee, S. Bhattacharyya, S. Bhaumik, V. Biancalana, F. Bianchi, I. A. Bilenko, M. Bilicki, G. Billingsley, A. Binetti, S. Bini, S. Biot, O. Birnholtz, S. Biscoveanu, A. Bisht, M. Bitossi, M. -A. Bizouard, S. Blaber, J. K. Blackburn, L. A. Blagg, C. D. Blair, D. G. Blair, M. Bloch, N. Bode, N. Boettner, P. Bogdan, G. Boileau, M. Boldrini, G. N. Bolingbroke, L. D. Bonavena, V. A. Bonhomme, E. Bonilla, M. S. Bonilla, A. Bonino, R. Bonnand, A. Borchers, N. Borghi, V. Boschi, S. Bose, V. Bossilkov, Y. Bothra, A. Boudon, T. D. Boybeyi, M. Boyle, A. Bozzi, C. Bradaschia, M. J. Brady, P. R. Brady, A. Branch, M. Branchesi, T. Briant, A. Brillet, M. Brinkmann, P. Brockill, E. Brockmueller, A. F. Brooks, D. D. Brown, M. L. Brozzetti, S. Brunett, G. Bruno, R. Bruntz, J. Bryant, Y. Bu, F. Bucci, A. Buchicchio, A. Buggiani, O. Bulashenko, T. Bulik, H. J. Bulten, A. Buonanno, K. Burtnyk, R. Buscicchio, N. Busdon, D. Buskulic, R. L. Byer, R. Cabrita, V. A. Cáceres-Barbosa, L. Cadonati, G. Cagnoli, C. Cahillane, A. Calafat, J. Calderón Bustillo, J. D. Callaghan, T. A. Callister, E. Calloni, S. R. Callos, K. Cannon, V. Cantory, H. Cao, L. A. Capistran, E. Capocasa, G. Capoccia, E. Capote, C. Capuano, G. Capurri, F. Carbognani, K. J. Cardona-Martínez, M. Carlassara, M. Carpinelli, G. Carrillo, G. Carullo, A. Casallas-Lagos, J. Casanueva Diaz, C. Casentini, S. Caudill, M. Cavaglià, R. Cavalieri, A. Ceja, G. Cella, P. Cerdá-Durán, E. Cesarini, N. Chabbra, W. Chaibi, A. Chakraborty, P. Chakraborty, S. Chakraborty, S. Chalathadka Subrahmanya, C. Chan, J. C. L. Chan, M. Chan, C. -Y. Chang, K. Chang, S. Chao, P. Charlton, E. Chassande-Mottin, C. Chatterjee, Debarati Chatterjee, Deep Chatterjee, M. Chaturvedi, S. Chaty, A. Chen, A. H. -Y. Chen, D. Chen, H. Chen, H. Y. Chen, S. Chen, Yanbei Chen, Yiwen Chen, G. Cheng, H. P. Cheng, P. Chessa, T. Cheunchitra, H. T. Cheung, S. Y. Cheung, F. Chiadini, G. Chiarini, A. Chiba, A. Chincarini, D. 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Dattilo, A. Daumas, I. Dave, A. Davenport, T. F. Davies, D. Davis, M. C. Davis, P. Davis, E. J. Daw, M. Dax, J. De Bolle, E. deBruin, M. Deenadayalan, J. Degallaix, M. De Laurentis, C. J. Delgado Mendez, F. De Lillo, S. Della Torre, W. Del Pozzo, O. M. del Rio, A. Demagny, F. De Marco, G. Demasi, F. De Matteis, C. de Melo, N. Demos, T. Dent, A. Depasse, N. DePergola, R. De Pietri, R. De Rosa, C. De Rossi, E. K. Derrick, M. Desai, D. DeSantis, S. Deshmukh, V. Deshmukh, R. De Simone, S. Determan, S. Dhage, A. Dhani, R. Dhatri, R. Dhurkunde, R. Diab, C. Diaz, M. C. Díaz, F. Diaz Guerra, M. Di Cesare, M. A. Dicorato, T. Dietrich, C. Di Fronzo, M. Di Giovanni, D. Diksha, J. Ding, S. Di Pace, I. Di Palma, D. Di Piero, F. Di Renzo, Divyajyoti, A. Dmitriev, J. P. Docherty, Z. Doctor, N. Doerksen, E. Dohmen, A. Doke, A. Domiciano De Souza, L. D'Onofrio, F. Donovan, K. L. Dooley, S. Doravari, O. Dorosh, F. Dosopoulou, M. Drago, J. C. Driggers, M. Dubois, R. S. Dumbreck, U. Dupletsa, D. D'Urso, P. Dutta Roy, H. Duval, S. Dwivedi, S. E. Dwyer, C. Eassa, M. Eberhardt, M. Ebersold, M. Ebiri, G. Eddolls, A. Effler, J. Eichholz, H. Einsle, M. Eisenmann, M. Emma, K. Endo, R. Enficiaud, V. Ernst, L. Errico, R. Espinosa, M. Esposito, R. C. Essick, H. Estellés, T. Etzel, M. Evans, T. Evstafyeva, J. M. Ezquiaga, F. Fabrizi, V. Fafone, S. Fairhurst, X. Fan, A. M. Farah, B. Farr, W. M. Farr, M. Favata, M. Fays, M. Fazio, J. Feicht, M. M. Fejer, J. -N. Feldhusen, E. Fenyvesi, A. Feo, J. Fernandes, T. Fernandes, G. Fernández Rodríguez, D. Fernando, S. Ferraiuolo, T. A. Ferreira, M. Ferrer-Martinez, F. Fidecaro, P. Figura, I. Fiori, M. Fishbach, R. P. Fisher, S. K. Fitzgerald, V. Fiumara, R. Flaminio, E. Flanagan, S. M. Fleischer, L. S. Fleming, F. Flocco, E. Floden, H. Fong, J. A. Font, F. Fontinele-Nunes, C. Foo, B. Fornal, P. W. F. Forsyth, A. Fragkos, N. Franchini, A. Franco-Ordovas, F. Frappez, F. Frasconi, J. P. Freed, Z. Frei, A. Freise, O. Freitas, R. Frey, W. Frischhertz, P. Fritschel, V. V. Frolov, M. Fuentes-Garcia, R. Fujii, T. Fujimori, Y. Fujiwara, P. Fulda, M. Fyffe, J. R. Gair, S. Galaudage, V. Galdi, M. Galimberti, A. Gamboa, S. Gamoji, A. Ganguly, B. Garaventa, P. García Abia, J. García-Bellido, C. García-Quirós, J. W. Gardner, S. Garg, J. Gargiulo, X. Garrido, A. Garron, F. Garufi, P. A. Garver, C. Gasbarra, F. Gautier, V. Gayathri, T. Gayer, G. Gemme, A. Gennai, V. Gennari, J. George, R. George, O. Gerberding, L. Gergely, A. Ghinassi, Archisman Ghosh, Sayantan Ghosh, Shaon Ghosh, Shrobana Ghosh, Suprovo Ghosh, Tathagata Ghosh, J. A. Giaime, K. D. Giardina, D. R. Gibson, C. Gier, F. Gittins, J. Glanzer, F. Glotin, E. Glowacki, J. Godfrey, R. V. Godley, O. Godwin, A. S. Goettel, E. Goetz, J. Golomb, S. Gomez Lopez, G. González, P. Goodarzi, S. R. Goode, A. Goodwin-Jones, M. Gosselin, S. M. Goss-Grubbs, C. Gostiaux, R. Gouaty, D. W. Gould, D. Goupilliere, K. Govorkova, A. Grado, V. Graham, A. E. Granados, M. Granata, V. Granata, S. 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Original paper licensed under CC BY 4.0 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). ✨ This is an AI-generated explanation of the paper below. It is not written or endorsed by the authors. For technical accuracy, refer to the original paper. Read full disclaimer
The universe is never truly silent. Beyond the distinct, sharp chirps of colliding black holes and neutron stars that have captivated scientists in recent years, there exists a faint, continuous hum. This background noise is a random superposition of countless weak gravitational waves, the ripples in space-time generated by billions of cosmic events happening simultaneously across the cosmos. Some of these waves come from the mergers of compact objects like black holes and neutron stars, while others might originate from the very earliest moments of the universe, carrying secrets from epochs long before stars ever ignited. Detecting this hum is one of the great challenges of modern physics because, unlike a single collision, the background signal is too weak to be heard by a single instrument; it can only be found by listening for a subtle correlation between the vibrations recorded by detectors separated by vast distances.
A recent study by the LIGO-Virgo-KAGRA Collaboration, a global network of gravitational-wave observatories, has taken the most sensitive look yet at this cosmic hum. Using data collected from April 2024 through April 2025, the researchers analyzed the combined output of the two LIGO detectors in the United States, along with data from earlier observing runs. Their goal was to find evidence of this isotropic background—a signal that would look the same coming from every direction in the sky. After months of rigorous analysis, the team found no evidence of such a signal. Instead, they established the strictest limits yet on how loud this background hum could possibly be, effectively telling us what the universe is not doing, which is just as valuable as finding what it is.
To achieve this level of sensitivity, the scientists had to overcome a unique challenge: the detectors themselves are prone to subtle, shifting noises that can mimic a cosmic signal. In this latest run, they encountered a specific type of noise that was not stationary, meaning its characteristics changed over time in ways that standard cleaning methods had missed. These fluctuations appeared as non-stationary spectral features—irregularities in the data that did not stay in one fixed frequency but wandered or shifted. To address this, the team developed a new, stricter method for filtering the data. They examined how the noise in the detectors varied over time, identifying frequency bands that fluctuated more than expected. By carefully removing these problematic sections of data, they created a cleaner listening environment. This process involved discarding a small but significant portion of the total observing time, yet the result was a much more reliable dataset that allowed them to set tighter constraints on the background signal.
The analysis covered a wide range of frequencies, from the low rumble of 20 hertz up to the high pitch of 1,726 hertz. The researchers looked for a background signal that could be described by a simple power law, a mathematical relationship that predicts how the strength of the signal changes with frequency. They tested several scenarios, including a signal that remains constant across all frequencies, one that matches the expected signature of merging black holes and neutron stars, and others that would suggest different physical origins. In every case, the data remained consistent with pure random noise. There was no trace of the correlated signal that would indicate a gravitational-wave background. Consequently, the team was able to place an upper limit on the energy density of this background. For a signal resembling the merger of compact binaries, the limit is set at a value of 2.0 times 10 to the power of negative 9 at a frequency of 25 hertz. For a signal that is the same at all frequencies, the limit is 2.8 times 10 to the power of negative 9. These numbers represent the maximum possible strength of the background; the actual signal, if it exists, must be quieter than this.
The study also investigated whether the background might have different shapes or polarizations than those predicted by Einstein's theory of general relativity. General relativity suggests that gravitational waves have a specific "tensor" polarization, but some alternative theories of gravity predict additional "scalar" or "vector" modes. The researchers searched for these exotic forms of waves and found no evidence for them either, further tightening the constraints on theories that deviate from standard physics. They also checked for a potential source of false alarms: correlated magnetic noise. Because the detectors are so sensitive, they can sometimes pick up magnetic fields from the Earth's atmosphere, specifically from global electromagnetic waves known as Schumann resonances. The team confirmed that these magnetic effects were far too weak to interfere with their search, ensuring that their null result is genuine.
While the search did not detect the background, the work provides a crucial update to our understanding of the cosmos. By combining their observational limits with the latest catalog of directly detected gravitational-wave events, the researchers were able to refine their predictions for what the background should look like if it is dominated by merging black holes and neutron stars. They calculated that the background from these cosmic collisions should have an amplitude of approximately 6.3 times 10 to the power of negative 10 at 25 hertz. This predicted value is significantly lower than the upper limits set by their search, meaning the background is still too faint to be heard with current technology. However, the gap between the prediction and the limit has narrowed considerably compared to previous studies. The researchers project that with the upcoming improvements to the detectors, scheduled for the next observing run, the sensitivity will increase enough to potentially detect this background within the next few years. Until then, the universe remains quiet, but the silence is becoming more informative, guiding us closer to the moment when the cosmic hum will finally be heard.
Technical Summary: Updated Upper Limits on the Isotropic Gravitational-Wave Background from LIGO, Virgo, and KAGRA Data through April 2025
Problem and Motivation
The isotropic gravitational-wave background (GWB) represents a random superposition of weak, unresolved signals from both astrophysical sources (e.g., compact binary coalescences, core-collapse supernovae, rotating neutron stars) and cosmological origins (e.g., cosmic strings, phase transitions, inflation). While individual gravitational-wave (GW) transients have been detected, the stochastic background remains undetected. Previous searches by the LIGO–Virgo–KAGRA (LVK) Collaboration using data from observing runs O1 through O4a established upper limits on the GWB energy density. However, the fourth observing run (O4) introduced new data-quality challenges, specifically non-stationary spectral noise features that were not effectively mitigated by existing data-quality checks. This paper addresses the need to re-process data with updated noise mitigation strategies and incorporate new data from the O4b and early O4c1 observing periods to improve sensitivity and constrain the GWB amplitude further.
Methodology
The analysis utilizes a hybrid frequentist-Bayesian cross-correlation framework implemented in the open-source pipeline pygwb. The dataset combines strain data from the LIGO Hanford (LHO) and LIGO Livingston (LLO) detectors from O4b (April 10, 2024 – January 28, 2025) and O4c1 (January 28, 2025 – April 1, 2025), alongside re-analyzed data from O1 through O4a. Virgo and KAGRA data from O4 were excluded as their marginal contribution to sensitivity improvement was estimated to be less than 1%.
Key methodological updates include:
- Frequency-Domain Cuts: A targeted re-assessment of spectral noise features was conducted. A new procedure was implemented to identify frequency bands exhibiting non-stationary behavior by analyzing the temporal variability of the power spectral density (PSD). This involved computing the standard deviation of the normalized PSD across time segments to flag outliers. This "strict notching" procedure identified additional noise features, including wandering power-line harmonics, mechanical resonances, and intermodulation products, leading to two new notch lists: one for O4a and one for O4b–O4c1. Consequently, all prior data (O1–O4a) were re-processed with these stricter cuts.
- Data Quality: Time-domain cuts (CAT1 vetoes and gating) and a non-stationarity cut (Δσ) were applied. The final usable coincident observing time was 117.05 days.
- Magnetic Noise Budget: The analysis explicitly assessed correlated magnetic noise from Schumann resonances. Magnetometer calibration factors were remeasured during O4b, yielding improved accuracy. A joint Bayesian analysis was performed to test for the simultaneous presence of correlated magnetic noise and a GWB signal, using agnostic priors for coupling parameters to ensure a conservative estimate.
- Astrophysical Modeling: Predictions for the compact binary coalescence (CBC) background were updated using population inferences from the GWTC-5.0 catalog. This included hierarchical Bayesian inference for binary black holes (BBH) and fixed-assumption modeling for binary neutron stars (BNS) and neutron star–black hole (NSBH) systems, incorporating a generic broken power-law redshift evolution model for the BBH merger rate.
Key Results
- Detection Status: No evidence for an isotropic stochastic GWB signal was found. The cross-correlation spectra are consistent with zero within 1σ uncertainties.
- Upper Limits: Bayesian upper limits were set at the 95% credible level (CL). For a power-law background with spectral index α=2/3 (predicted by inspiralling compact binaries), the limit is ΩGW(25 Hz)≤2.0×10−9 (log-uniform prior). For a scale-invariant background (α=0), the limit is ΩGW(25 Hz)≤2.8×10−9. These limits represent an improvement by a factor of 1.4 over the recalculated O1–O4a constraints.
- Alternative Polarizations: Constraints were placed on non-GR polarization modes (vector and scalar). The limits improved by factors of 1.4 (vector) and 1.3 (scalar) relative to the updated O1–O4a results. The analysis showed a preference for a tensor-polarized background (consistent with General Relativity), though this is attributed to the Occam penalty for more complex models in the absence of a detection.
- Magnetic Noise: The joint analysis confirmed that correlated magnetic noise remains below the sensitivity of the search and does not bias the results.
- Astrophysical Predictions: The predicted amplitude of the CBC background was refined to ΩCBC(25 Hz)=6.3−2.2+5.0×10−10 (90% CL). This estimate is lower and more tightly constrained than previous predictions, primarily due to improved constraints on the BBH merger rate evolution, specifically a more moderate increase with redshift.
Significance and Claims
The paper claims that the implementation of stricter frequency-domain cuts based on temporal variability has successfully mitigated previously unidentified non-stationary noise features, leading to more robust and conservative upper limits. The re-analysis of the entire O1–O4c1 dataset with these updated cuts ensures consistency across the observing runs.
The authors state that while current observational limits remain above the predicted astrophysical background, the refined predictions and the projected sensitivity improvements for the upcoming O5 observing run make the detection of the CBC background increasingly plausible. The work positions stochastic searches as a complementary probe to direct transient detections for understanding the formation and merger history of compact binaries across cosmic time. The paper does not claim a detection but emphasizes the tightening of constraints and the validation of the search methodology against environmental noise sources.
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