Islam in South Asia: The Interplay of Faith, Political Dynamics, and Cultural Expression
This paper argues that Islam in South Asia, home to the world's largest Muslim population, is a multifaceted phenomenon that cannot be understood through a single lens, as it simultaneously functions as a private faith, a mobilized political force, and a localized culture, with the balance among these dimensions shifting significantly across different countries and historical periods.
Original paper licensed under CC BY 4.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). This is an AI-generated explanation of the paper below. It is not written or endorsed by the authors. For technical accuracy, refer to the original paper. Read full disclaimer
South Asia is a vast region where hundreds of millions of people live, and it is home to the largest concentration of Muslims on Earth. To understand this population, one must look at three different ways people experience their faith. First, there is belief, which covers the specific rules and prayers that guide a person's spiritual life. Second, there is politics, which is how governments use religion to make laws or how groups use faith to gain power. Third, there is culture, which includes the local languages, food, music, and festivals that make religion feel like a part of daily life rather than just a set of rules. These three layers often mix together, but they can also pull in different directions, creating a complex picture that changes from one country to the next.
A new study by researchers Sandeep Kumar and Dr. Neeta Rani from the Central University of Jammu explores exactly how these three layers interact across South Asia. The authors examined four major countries in the region: Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, and Afghanistan. They gathered data on population numbers, recent court cases, and political events to see how Islam functions in each place. Their work shows that there is no single way to describe Islam in this part of the world. Instead, the faith acts as a private belief for some, a powerful political tool for others, and a rich cultural tradition for everyone, with the balance shifting dramatically depending on where you are and what time period you are looking at.
The researchers found that the sheer number of people matters. South Asia holds roughly 650 million Muslims, which is about one-third of the entire region's population and nearly one-third of all Muslims worldwide. In Pakistan and Bangladesh, the majority of people are Muslim, while in India, Muslims make up a large minority of about 14 to 15 percent of the population. Afghanistan is almost entirely Muslim. Despite these different starting points, the study highlights that the way people practice their faith is surprisingly similar in many ways. Most Muslims in the region follow the Sunni branch of Islam, but their daily lives are deeply shaped by Sufism, a mystical tradition that honors saints and visits their shrines. This devotional style, which often includes music and shared festivals with neighbors of other faiths, is a dominant feature of the culture, even as more strict, rule-focused versions of the faith have grown in influence.
When the study looks at politics, the differences between the four countries become very clear. In Pakistan, the government is officially an Islamic republic, and the state enforces strict religious laws. The researchers note that blasphemy laws, which punish insults against religion, are a major source of tension and violence. In recent years, hardline political groups have used these laws to mobilize crowds, and the government has had to ban some of these groups to maintain order. In Bangladesh, the situation is different. The country was founded on secular principles, but the balance between secularism and religion has shifted over time. Following a major political upheaval in 2024, the country is in a period of transition where religious parties are trying to find a new place in the government.
India presents a third picture. As a secular democracy with a large Muslim minority, the country's laws are meant to treat all religions equally. However, the researchers point to recent legal battles over the management of religious endowments, known as Waqf. A new law passed in 2025 aims to bring more transparency to these properties, but critics argue it gives the government too much control over Muslim institutions. This legal fight is currently before the Supreme Court and serves as a test of how the government relates to its Muslim citizens. In Afghanistan, the picture is the most extreme. Since the Taliban took control in 2021, the country has become an Islamic emirate where the government enforces a very strict interpretation of religious rules, including bans on girls' education and severe restrictions on women's rights.
Despite these political differences, the cultural life of Muslims in South Asia remains remarkably connected. The study describes a vibrant world of local languages, from Urdu in the north to Bengali in the east, where poetry and music thrive. Festivals like Eid and the birthday of the Prophet are celebrated with unique local flavors, and Sufi shrines continue to draw people from all backgrounds. The researchers argue that this cultural richness often survives even when political leaders try to change the rules. For example, in countries where strict political Islam is rising, the old traditions of visiting shrines and celebrating with music often continue among ordinary people, creating a gap between what the government wants and what the people actually do.
The authors conclude that to truly understand South Asia, one cannot look at just one of these three layers. The region is not just a place of political conflict or a land of strict religious rules. It is a place where faith is lived through family traditions, local art, and community gatherings, even as it is debated in courtrooms and parliaments. The study suggests that while political tensions and legal changes are real and important, they do not erase the deep, shared cultural roots that bind millions of people together. The future of the region will likely depend on how these different forces—belief, politics, and culture—continue to negotiate with one another, just as they have for over a thousand years.
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