📄 social_science

Determinants of Education Quality in Secondary Schools in Mogadishu Somalia Using Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling

Using Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling on data from 239 respondents in Mogadishu, this study identifies curriculum relevance, student–teacher ratio, parental involvement, and teacher competence as significant determinants of secondary education quality in Somalia, with curriculum relevance having the strongest positive impact.

Original authors: Omar Abdi Mohamud, Leila Mohamed Warsame, Mohamed Jamac, Abdirahman Ibrahim Abdi

Published 2026-08-12

📖 3 min read☕ Coffee break read

CC BY 4.0

Original authors: Omar Abdi Mohamud, Leila Mohamed Warsame, Mohamed Jamac, Abdirahman Ibrahim Abdi

Original paper licensed under CC BY 4.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). ✨ This is an AI-generated explanation of the paper below. It is not written or endorsed by the authors. For technical accuracy, refer to the original paper. Read full disclaimer

Imagine education as a giant, complex recipe for baking the perfect loaf of bread. For a long time, people thought the only thing that mattered was getting more people into the kitchen (getting more kids into school). But lately, scientists and teachers have realized that just having a crowded kitchen doesn't mean you'll get good bread. You need the right ingredients, the right tools, and the right chef. This field of study is called "Education Quality," and it asks: what actually makes learning work? To answer this, researchers look at four main ingredients: the skill of the teacher (the chef), the number of students in the class (how crowded the kitchen is), how useful the lesson plan is (the recipe), and how much the family helps out (the people cheering from the sidelines). This paper dives into these specific ingredients to see which ones actually make the bread rise in the schools of Mogadishu, Somalia.

The researchers, a team from SIMAD University, decided to test this "recipe" using a special mathematical tool called Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM). Think of this tool as a super-accurate kitchen scale that doesn't just weigh one ingredient at a time, but measures how all the ingredients interact with each other simultaneously. They surveyed 239 people—students, teachers, parents, and school bosses—to get their opinions on how these four factors were working in their schools.

Here is what they found when they put everything on the scale. The study confirmed that all four ingredients matter, but they don't all weigh the same. The most powerful ingredient turned out to be Curriculum Relevance. This is the "recipe" itself—how well the lessons match what students need to know for their future jobs and lives. It had the strongest effect, with a score of 0.303. In other words, if the recipe is outdated or irrelevant, even the best chef can't bake a great cake.

The second most important factor was the Student–Teacher Ratio. This is about how crowded the kitchen is. The study found that having fewer students per teacher (a lower ratio) significantly improves quality, with a score of 0.273. When the class is too packed, the teacher can't give enough attention to each student, and the learning suffers.

Next came Parental Involvement, which scored 0.213. This is the support from home. When parents talk to teachers, check on homework, and show they care, the "bread" rises better. Finally, there was Teacher Competence, which scored 0.122. While having a skilled teacher is definitely important and the study proved it makes a difference, it was actually the least influential of the four factors in this specific mix. This suggests that even a very skilled teacher can struggle if the recipe is bad, the class is too crowded, or the family isn't involved.

When you combine all these factors together, they explain 58.5% of why some schools are doing better than others. The paper doesn't claim to have solved the whole puzzle (there's still about 41.5% of the mystery left), but it gives a very clear map of the most important parts. The researchers conclude that you can't just fix one thing and expect a miracle. To get the best education, you need to improve the recipe, give teachers more space to work, get parents on board, and keep training teachers—all at the same time. It's a team effort where every ingredient counts, but the recipe itself seems to be the star of the show.

Technical Summary: Determinants of Education Quality in Secondary Schools in Mogadishu, Somalia

Problem Statement
Despite substantial progress in expanding access to secondary education in Somalia, particularly in Mogadishu, the quality of education remains a critical challenge. Existing literature often treats determinants of education quality—such as teacher competence, student–teacher ratios, curriculum relevance, and parental involvement—in isolation or within contexts of developed, stable nations. There is a scarcity of empirical evidence examining the combined influence of these factors within the specific context of a post-conflict, fragile state like Somalia. Furthermore, previous studies in the region have largely relied on conventional regression techniques, which may limit the ability to analyze complex relationships among latent constructs. This study addresses these gaps by investigating how instructional, institutional, and family-related factors jointly determine education quality in Somali secondary schools.

Methodology
The study employed a quantitative, descriptive cross-sectional survey design. Data were collected from 239 respondents, comprising students, teachers, parents, and school administrators selected via simple random sampling from both public and private secondary schools in Mogadishu.

Instrument: A structured, self-administered questionnaire utilizing a five-point Likert scale was used to measure four independent constructs (Teacher Competence, Student–Teacher Ratio, Curriculum Relevance, Parental Involvement) and one dependent construct (Education Quality). Items were adapted from validated instruments and refined for the Somali context.
Analytical Technique: The study utilized Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) using SmartPLS 4. This approach was selected for its suitability in prediction-oriented research, its ability to handle complex relationships among multiple latent constructs simultaneously, and its robustness with moderate sample sizes without requiring multivariate normality.
Validation: The measurement model was rigorously evaluated for reliability (Cronbach's alpha, rho_A, Composite Reliability) and validity (convergent validity via Average Variance Extracted, and discriminant validity via Fornell–Larcker criterion, cross-loadings, and Heterotrait–Monotrait Ratio). Common method bias was assessed using Harman's single-factor test. Bootstrapping with 5,000 subsamples was performed to test the significance of path coefficients.

Key Results
The structural model analysis yielded the following findings:

Model Explanatory Power: The four determinants collectively explained 58.5% of the variance in Education Quality ( $R^2 = 0.585$ ), indicating moderate explanatory power.
Significant Predictors: All four hypothesized relationships were found to be statistically significant:
- Curriculum Relevance: Emerged as the strongest positive predictor ( $\beta = 0.303, p < 0.001$ ).
- Student–Teacher Ratio: Had the second strongest effect, confirming a significant negative influence on education quality ( $\beta = 0.273, p < 0.001$ ), indicating that higher ratios correlate with lower quality.
- Parental Involvement: Showed a significant positive influence ( $\beta = 0.213, p = 0.015$ ).
- Teacher Competence: Demonstrated a significant, though comparatively smaller, positive effect ( $\beta = 0.122, p = 0.038$ ).
Measurement Validity: The measurement model satisfied all recommended thresholds for reliability and validity. Indicator loadings ranged from 0.659 to 0.821, with all Composite Reliability values exceeding 0.80 and Average Variance Extracted (AVE) values exceeding 0.50. Discriminant validity was confirmed as the square roots of the AVEs were greater than inter-construct correlations, and HTMT values remained below the 0.90 threshold.

Significance and Claims
The authors claim that this study makes three primary contributions:

Theoretical Contribution: The study integrates major determinants of education quality into a comprehensive conceptual framework suitable for developing and post-conflict contexts. It provides empirical support for the Education Production Function Theory and Systems Theory, demonstrating that education quality is shaped by the interaction of multiple inputs rather than a single factor.
Methodological Contribution: By applying PLS-SEM, the study offers a more rigorous examination of latent constructs and their simultaneous relationships compared to conventional statistical approaches previously used in the region.
Practical Contribution: The findings provide context-specific evidence for policymakers, the Ministry of Education, school administrators, and development partners in Somalia. The study argues that improving education quality requires integrated strategies rather than isolated interventions. Specifically, it recommends prioritizing the implementation of relevant curricula, enhancing teacher professional development, maintaining appropriate student–teacher ratios, and fostering stronger school–parent partnerships.

Limitations
The authors acknowledge several limitations: the cross-sectional design limits causal inferences; the focus on Mogadishu restricts generalizability to other Somali regions; reliance on self-reported data introduces potential social desirability bias; and the model leaves approximately 41.5% of the variance in education quality unexplained, suggesting the need for future research to include factors such as school leadership, digital infrastructure, and government policy.

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