Social Exclusion, Occupational Stigma, and Constrained Agency among Harijan Sanitation Workers in Urban Bangladesh: An Ethnographically Informed Case Study of the Ganaktuli Sweeper Colony, Dhaka
Through an ethnographic study of the Ganaktuli sweeper colony in Dhaka, this article argues that despite formal wage employment, Harijan sanitation workers in urban Bangladesh experience constrained agency due to the interlocking forces of caste-based occupational stigma, gendered mobility restrictions, and spatial exclusion, which collectively limit their social integration and economic empowerment while fostering specific aspirations for their daughters' education.
Original paper licensed under CC BY 4.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). This is an AI-generated explanation of the paper below. It is not written or endorsed by the authors. For technical accuracy, refer to the original paper. Read full disclaimer
In the bustling capital of Dhaka, Bangladesh, the city's streets, drains, and markets remain clean because of a small, often overlooked community. These workers, known locally as Harijan, are descendants of laborers recruited generations ago to perform the essential but stigmatized task of manual cleaning. While their work keeps the city physically functional, they live on the margins of society, facing a unique blend of social barriers. To understand their lives, researchers look at how three powerful forces interact: caste, which assigns people to specific roles based on their family history; gender, which dictates what women can and cannot do; and space, which determines where they are allowed to live and move. When these forces combine, they create a situation where a person might have a job and a paycheck, yet still feel unable to make real choices about their future. This concept, often called agency, is not just about having resources; it is about the actual freedom to use those resources to improve one's life.
A team of researchers from Galgotias University set out to explore this complex reality through a deep, long-term look at the Ganaktuli sweeper colony in Dhaka. Over a period of eighteen months, they lived among the community, observing daily life and listening to the stories of thirty individuals, including both men and women. They also visited three other nearby settlements to see if the patterns they found were unique to one place or common across the city. Instead of relying on broad statistics, the team focused on the detailed, personal experiences of the people they met, recording their voices and watching how they navigated a world that often treated them as invisible. Their goal was to understand how a community that is essential to the city's survival could remain so excluded from the benefits of that same city.
The researchers found that for these workers, living in Dhaka for generations does not mean they are truly accepted as part of the city. A common experience described by the workers was a sense of belonging without acceptance. They were born in the city and grew up there, yet when they stepped outside their colony, people treated them differently the moment they realized who they were. A woman working as a cleaner in a private hospital explained that strangers would initially speak to her kindly, but as soon as they learned she was a Harijan, their tone would change, and they would stop inviting her to sit or eat with them. This stigma was not just about the dirty work they did; it followed them as people, closing doors to better jobs and social interactions. Even when they tried to apply for different work, their family name and the colony they lived in acted as an invisible barrier, preventing them from moving forward.
This barrier was especially high for women, who faced a double burden of caste and gender. The study revealed an "invisible ceiling" that kept most women trapped in the same cleaning jobs their mothers and grandmothers had held. Even if a woman had gone to school and learned new skills, the moment an employer saw her background, the opportunity vanished. Beyond the job market, the physical toll of the work was severe, with many workers suffering from chronic back pain and respiratory issues. Yet, they could not afford to take time off to see a doctor because they were paid daily wages, and missing a day meant no food for their families. This fear of losing income silenced them, even when they faced harassment on buses or insults from shopkeepers who refused to give them credit. One woman described how a shopkeeper publicly shamed her for asking to pay later, shouting that sweepers should not expect credit.
Despite these heavy constraints, the researchers discovered that these women were not passive victims. They found a way to exercise a small but real amount of power within their own homes. The most significant change came when women gained access to their own bank accounts. For the first time, they could manage some of the household money, such as paying for their children's school fees or buying food. This financial independence gave them a voice in family decisions that they previously lacked. The strongest expression of this new agency was seen in their fierce determination to educate their daughters. Many mothers insisted on keeping their daughters in school, even when their husbands wanted them to stop, promising to work extra hours to cover the costs. This hope for the next generation was a powerful act of resistance, a way to break the cycle of hereditary labor that had held their families for so long.
However, this agency was fragile and limited. While women could make decisions inside their homes, they had very little power to change their situation in the wider world. They could not easily resist the discrimination they faced on the street or demand better working conditions from their employers. The study also highlighted that the physical layout of their neighborhoods played a huge role in their isolation. The Ganaktuli colony, with its own community center and temples, offered a small platform for collective action that other settlements lacked. In places without such community organizations, women felt even more alone and powerless when trying to deal with local officials. The researchers noted that government programs meant to help the poor often failed to reach these workers because the programs required time and mobility that the women simply did not have.
The findings suggest that simply giving people a job or a bank account is not enough to free them from deep-seated social exclusion. For the Harijan workers in Dhaka, the barriers are woven into the very fabric of the city, from the way neighborhoods are built to the way people interact on the street. The study concludes that true empowerment requires addressing these interconnected issues of caste, gender, and space together. It calls for policies that recognize the specific needs of these communities, such as flexible training schedules that fit around their long shifts and housing upgrades that treat their colonies as legitimate parts of the city rather than hidden corners. Until these structural changes happen, the workers who keep the city clean will remain trapped in a cycle where their labor is essential, but their humanity is often ignored.
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