Gender expression appraisals in introductory physics courses: A cross-institutional replication

Problem Statement
Quantitative studies of gender in physics education have traditionally relied on categorical gender identity measures to document broad patterns of inequity across groups. However, these measures are limited in their ability to capture variation within gender groups or to examine how students perceive themselves and how they believe others perceive them along dimensions commonly associated with gender, such as femininity, masculinity, and androgyny. While qualitative research has highlighted that students, particularly women and gender minorities, often feel pressure to distance themselves from feminine traits or conceal aspects of their gender expression to fit into predominantly masculine norms, there is a need for quantitative tools to study these dynamics. Previous work by the authors identified substantial within-gender variation in self-appraisals and specific directional discrepancies between self-appraisals and reflected appraisals (how students believe others perceive them). Because these initial findings emerged from a single institutional context, the scope of their applicability remained unclear. This study addresses the need to determine whether these patterns reflect broader features of physics learning environments or are shaped by local cultural and institutional conditions.

Methodology
This study is a cross-institutional replication of a prior quantitative study conducted at a large public research university in the southeastern United States. The present study was conducted at a different large public research university in the Pacific Northwest. The data were collected from 1,845 students enrolled in introductory algebra-based and calculus-based physics courses over one academic year.

The researchers utilized the same core gradational measures adapted from prior sociological studies (Magliozzi et al.) to assess:

1. Self-appraisals: How students rate their own femininity, masculinity, and androgyny.
2. Reflected appraisals: How students believe others perceive them on these same dimensions.
3. Discrepancy scores: Calculated by subtracting reflected appraisals from self-appraisals to identify directional patterns (e.g., positive masculinity discrepancy where self-appraisal > reflected appraisal).

The study also measured social-psychological variables, specifically physics sense of belonging and gender stigma consciousness, using validated Likert-scale items. Statistical analyses included descriptive statistics, Wilcoxon signed-rank tests to assess discrepancy distributions, Pearson correlations, one-way ANOVAs, and a series of logistic regression models to predict the likelihood of reporting specific directional discrepancies based on demographics, course type, and social-psychological variables.

Key Results
The study confirmed several patterns observed in the prior study while identifying context-specific variations:

• Within-Group Variation: Across both institutions, students utilized the full range of the 7-point gradational scales for femininity, masculinity, and androgyny, demonstrating substantial variation within gender identity groups.
• Directional Discrepancy Patterns:
  • Women: Consistently showed tendencies toward positive masculinity discrepancies (seeing themselves as more masculine than others see them), negative femininity discrepancies (seeing themselves as less feminine than others see them), and positive androgyny discrepancies.
  • Men: Generally showed aligned self- and reflected appraisals, though positive femininity discrepancies were observed in calculus-based courses.
  • Smaller-Sample Groups: Students identifying as non-binary, agender, or with self-described genders showed patterns similar to women, particularly regarding negative femininity and positive androgyny discrepancies.
• Associations with Social-Psychological Variables:
  • Gender Stigma Consciousness: Higher levels were consistently associated with all three directional discrepancy patterns (positive masculinity, negative femininity, and positive androgyny) across institutions.
  • Sense of Belonging: Lower sense of belonging was consistently associated with negative femininity discrepancies across institutions. In the present study, lower belonging was also significantly associated with positive masculinity discrepancies.
• Regression Findings: Logistic regression models indicated that gender identity (specifically identifying as a woman or in a smaller-sample group) and gender stigma consciousness were robust predictors of directional discrepancies. Sense of belonging was a significant predictor for masculinity and femininity discrepancies but not for androgyny discrepancies in the present study.
• Cross-Institutional Differences: While the broad patterns replicated, differences emerged in the prevalence of endpoint versus intermediate responses, the specific subgroups showing significant discrepancies (e.g., men showing positive femininity discrepancies in calculus courses), and the strength of predictors. For instance, race/ethnicity and course type roles varied between the two studies.

Key Contributions
The primary contribution of this work is the validation of gradational self-appraisal and reflected-appraisal measures as a complementary quantitative lens for studying gender in physics education. By replicating findings across two distinct institutional contexts, the study demonstrates that:

1. Context-Sensitivity: Students' self-appraisals and reflected appraisals are both patterned and sensitive to institutional context.
2. Inclusion-Relevant Dynamics: Self–reflected appraisal discrepancies are meaningfully connected to students' experiences of inclusion, specifically through their associations with sense of belonging and gender stigma consciousness.
3. Methodological Expansion: The study provides evidence that moving beyond categorical gender identity to include gradational measures can reveal within-group variations and perceived gaps between self-understanding and perceived social recognition that categorical measures might miss.

Significance and Claims
The authors claim that self–reflected appraisal discrepancy offers a useful quantitative lens for examining the perceived gaps between students' self-understandings and how they believe they are perceived by others in physics learning environments. The recurrence of specific discrepancy patterns (particularly among women and gender minorities) and their association with gender stigma consciousness and lower sense of belonging suggests these discrepancies are not random but may reflect the navigation of gendered expectations regarding competence and fit in physics.

The paper modestly concludes that these findings suggest inclusive learning environments should aim to recognize diverse forms of expression and participation as legitimate. However, the authors explicitly state that the study does not establish causal ordering between discrepancy, belonging, and stigma consciousness, nor does it identify the specific contextual features driving the observed differences between institutions. They call for future qualitative and longitudinal work to understand how students interpret these discrepancies and how specific classroom interactions shape them.