Evidence for embalming of the head and transnasal craniotomy in ancient Egypt from Predynastic to Roman times

For thousands of years, the people of ancient Egypt believed that preserving the body was essential for the soul's journey into the afterlife. They developed a sophisticated practice of embalming, treating the deceased with a complex mixture of natural substances to stop decay and restore a lifelike appearance. While much is known about how they treated the whole body, the specific care given to the head—the seat of identity and the senses—has remained a mystery. This is partly because many ancient heads were separated from their bodies by early collectors, leaving them isolated in museum drawers without their original context. Without the full body, it has been difficult to understand how embalmers approached this most critical part of the human form, or how their techniques changed over time.

A new study brings fresh clarity to this ancient practice by examining a collection of twenty-two mummified heads held at the University of Turin in Italy. These heads, recovered from various sites in Egypt between 1913 and 1937, span a vast timeline from the earliest Predynastic period up to the Roman era. To understand what happened to these individuals, researchers combined three different methods: they used high-resolution CT scans to look inside the skulls without touching them, they took tiny samples of hair, skin, and cloth to analyze the chemical makeup of the substances used, and they dated the organic materials to place each head precisely in time. This multi-layered approach allowed them to reconstruct not just what the embalmers used, but also how they physically prepared the head.

The results reveal that the treatment of the head was far more advanced and varied than previously thought. The study pushes back the evidence for complex embalming recipes by at least a thousand years. Even in the Predynastic period, long before the great pyramids were built, embalmers were already using a sophisticated blend of animal fat, tree resins, and a specific type of resin from the Pistacia tree. This finding challenges the idea that such complex mixtures were a later invention; instead, they appear to have been part of the foundational toolkit of Egyptian embalmers from the very beginning. The Pistacia resin, in particular, was identified in a head dated to this earliest period, suggesting it was a core ingredient rather than a luxury added much later.

As time passed, the recipes evolved. By the Middle Kingdom, embalmers began incorporating plant oils, including castor oil, which would have helped to soften and hydrate the skin and hair. Later, during the Third Intermediate and Late periods, the mixtures became even more diverse, occasionally including beeswax and bitumen, a natural tar-like substance. However, the study also shows that there was no single, rigid rulebook for every body. Embalmers tailored their approach, sometimes using a simple mixture of just one or two ingredients, and at other times combining up to four different substances. This flexibility suggests a deep practical understanding of how these materials worked together to preserve the body while also serving ritual purposes.

The physical process of preparing the head also showed variation. In many cases, the brain was removed through the nose, a technique known as transnasal craniotomy. CT scans of a Predynastic individual confirmed that this practice was in use much earlier than previously recorded. In some instances, the empty skull cavity was then filled with embalming materials to provide further protection. Yet, the study found that this was not always done; in a few cases, the brain was left inside, or the skull was not filled with packing material. This inconsistency indicates that embalmers made choices based on the specific needs of the individual or perhaps the resources available at the time, rather than following a strict, unchanging protocol.

The chemical analysis also offered clues about the social aspects of these treatments. While most ingredients were used across different ages and sexes, there were subtle differences. For example, animal fat was not found on the female heads in this specific group, and beeswax was absent from the children. These patterns hint at possible social distinctions in how different people were treated, though the small number of samples means these observations are suggestions rather than definitive rules. What remains clear is that the materials chosen often carried symbolic weight. The consistent use of conifer and Pistacia resins across four millennia points to their importance in religious rituals, linking the physical act of preservation to the spiritual goal of making the deceased divine.

Ultimately, this research paints a picture of Egyptian embalmers as skilled chemists and thoughtful ritualists who balanced technical innovation with deep tradition. They did not simply apply a standard formula; they adapted their methods over four thousand years, experimenting with new ingredients while maintaining the use of those that held the most meaning. By focusing on the heads, the study highlights how central the face was to the Egyptian concept of identity. The care taken to preserve these features, using a dynamic mix of fats, oils, waxes, and resins, ensured that the deceased could be recognized and remembered, bridging the gap between the living and the dead.