Sources of Australian and Chinese preservice teachers’ classroom management self-efficacy: a qualitative study
This qualitative study utilizing semi-structured interviews reveals that while enacted experiences are central to developing classroom management self-efficacy for both Australian and Chinese preservice teachers, cultural contexts and program structures significantly influence the salience of different efficacy sources, highlighting the necessity of distinguishing between knowledge and self-efficacy in teacher education design.
Original paper licensed under CC BY 4.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). This is an AI-generated explanation of the paper below. It is not written or endorsed by the authors. For technical accuracy, refer to the original paper. Read full disclaimer
Every new teacher faces a moment where the classroom feels like a storm they must navigate alone. Students talk over instructions, lessons derail, and the quiet confidence needed to lead a group of young people can evaporate in seconds. This feeling of doubt is not just a personal worry; it is a professional hurdle that can cause even the most talented educators to leave the profession before they truly begin. To understand why some teachers survive these early storms while others do not, researchers look at a concept called self-efficacy. In plain terms, this is a teacher's belief in their own ability to manage a classroom effectively. It is not about how much they know about history or math, but whether they trust themselves to keep order and engage students. Psychologists have long suggested that this belief is built from four main ingredients: the direct experience of trying and succeeding, watching others succeed, receiving encouraging feedback, and managing one's own stress and emotions. But how these ingredients mix together can change depending on where a teacher is trained and the culture they come from.
A recent study set out to see how these ingredients work for future teachers in two very different worlds: Australia and China. The researchers interviewed eighteen student teachers, nine from each country, asking them to reflect on their training and their feelings about managing a classroom. They wanted to know what specific experiences made these students feel capable or doubtful. The study found that while the basic building blocks of confidence are similar everywhere, the way they are assembled differs significantly due to the structure of teacher training programs and deep-seated cultural habits. The most powerful source of confidence for everyone was the actual experience of running a classroom, but the study revealed a surprising twist: having too much help during training can actually weaken a new teacher's belief in their own ability to handle things alone later.
The researchers discovered that the most influential factor for building confidence was what they call "enactive mastery experiences," which simply means the feeling of having done something successfully on your own. In both Australia and China, student teachers who felt they had truly managed a difficult situation without constant help felt more confident. However, the path to these experiences was different. Australian student teachers often spent long periods in schools where they were expected to take full responsibility for the class, sometimes for weeks at a time. This forced them to stand on their own feet, and while it was stressful, it built a strong sense of capability. In contrast, Chinese student teachers often had less time to teach independently due to the structure of their training programs. Their mentors tended to stay very close, offering constant guidance and taking over when things got tough. While this support felt safe, the Chinese students reported that it left them feeling unprepared for the reality of being the sole authority in a classroom. They felt they had not had enough chances to test their own limits, which made them doubt whether they could handle the job alone once they graduated. Consequently, they relied less on direct mastery experiences to build their confidence compared to their Australian peers, not because they preferred observation, but because the program structure limited their opportunities for independent practice.
Watching others teach, known as "vicarious experience," played a different role in the two countries. In both places, student teachers learned a lot by observing experienced mentors. However, the study found that watching a perfect teacher can sometimes be discouraging. Some Australian students watched their mentors command a room with effortless ease and felt a gap between that performance and their own struggles, which made them feel less capable. In China, student teachers watched a wider variety of models, including peers and university lecturers. Unlike their Australian counterparts, who sometimes felt intimidated by the gap between their skills and those of expert mentors, Chinese participants did not seem to explicitly distinguish between the significance of peer models and proficient models, considering them all as additional learning opportunities. The researchers noted that simply watching someone else succeed does not automatically make a student teacher feel more confident. Instead, confidence grows when the student sees that the skills being modeled are something they can actually practice and master themselves.
Feedback from mentors, or "social persuasion," was another critical piece of the puzzle. The study showed that generic praise like "good job" did little to build real confidence. What mattered was specific, honest feedback that pointed out exactly what was working and what needed to change. When mentors gave detailed advice, student teachers felt they had a clear path to improvement. Interestingly, the study found that cultural differences mattered less here than the quality of the feedback. Whether in Australia or China, student teachers valued feedback that felt sincere and helpful. However, the researchers also found that if a student teacher was already feeling overwhelmed or anxious, even good feedback might not be enough to boost their confidence. The emotional state of the teacher acted like a filter; if they were feeling high stress or fear, they were more likely to focus on their failures and ignore the evidence of their success.
The study also challenged a common assumption that knowing a lot about teaching methods automatically makes a teacher confident. The researchers found that student teachers could have a head full of theories and strategies but still feel completely unsure of themselves in a real classroom. Knowledge is necessary, but it is not enough on its own. Confidence comes from the act of using that knowledge in a real, messy situation. The researchers also noted that while student teachers in both countries felt stress and anxiety, they rarely listed these feelings as the main reason for their lack of confidence. Instead, they saw their emotions as a reaction to their experiences. If a teacher had a bad day where they lost control of the class, that negative feeling would stick with them and make them doubt their abilities for a long time, even if their mentor told them they did well.
Ultimately, the study suggests that teacher training programs need to be careful about how much they protect their students. While support is vital, removing all the challenges and risks from a student teacher's experience can leave them feeling fragile. The most effective way to build a confident teacher is to provide them with authentic opportunities to struggle and succeed on their own, backed by mentors who give specific, honest feedback. The cultural context matters, with Chinese students having fewer opportunities for independent practice due to program design and Australian students having more, but the core lesson is universal: confidence is built by doing, not just by watching or listening. For the future of education, this means designing training programs that balance safety with the necessary friction of real-world teaching, ensuring that new teachers leave school feeling ready to face the storm.
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